2 The cardiovascular system

(a) The structure and function of arteries,

capillaries and veins to include
endothelium, central lumen, connective
tissue, elastic fibres, smooth muscle and
valves. The role of vasoconstriction and
vasodilation in controlling blood flow.

Structure of the
Cardiovascular System

What is the Cardiovascular system?

The cardiovascular system,
also known as the circulatory
system, is composed of blood,
blood vessels and the heart.
The heart functions as a
pump to move blood through
the blood vessels of the body.
A circulatory system is
essential for large, multicellular organisms, such as
humans and animals, and
provide at least five major
functions that are necessary
for life.

The five major functions of the

cardiovascular system are:
Transporting oxygen and
removing carbon dioxide
Transporting nutrients and
removing wastes
Fighting disease
Transporting hormones
Regulating body temperature

Cardiovascular system
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=CjNKbL_-cwA

Components of the CVS

The CVS consists of
a double pump (the
heart) and a complex
system of blood
vessels.

The cardiovascular system

The cardiovascular system is made up
of the heart along with the blood
vessels.

Blood vessels
A layer of cells called the endothelium lines the
central lumen of all blood vessels. It is surrounded by
layers of tissue. These surrounding layers differ in
each type of blood vessel.
The middle of the vessel is called the central lumen.

ARTERIES
Carry blood away from
the heart
Endothelium
One cell thick

Elastic tissues & smooth

muscles
Rebounds
Evens flow

Fibrous tissue
Tough
Resists stretch

Contraction of the smooth muscle:

vasodilation and vasoconstriction

Arteries
Arteries carry blood away from the heart. The further the blood
travels away from the heart, the lower the blood pressure gets.
They have an outer layer of connective tissue containing elastic
fibres and a middle layer containing smooth muscle with more elastic
fibres. The elastic walls of the arteries stretch and recoil to
accommodate the surge of blood after each contraction of the
heart.
The smooth muscle can contract, called vasoconstriction. This
decreases the blood flow. It can also relax, causing vasodilation.
This increases blood flow. Movement of these muscles controls
blood flow.

VEINS
Carry blood towards
the heart
Endothelium
Larger lumen than
arteries
Thinner muscle
layer & few elastic
fibres
Blood at lower
pressure

Fibrous tissue

VEINS
Contain valves
Prevents backflow of
blood

Situated between
skeletal muscles
Muscle compresses
vein when
contracted
Blood squirted
towards heart

Veins
Veins have an outer layer of connective tissue
containing elastic fibres but a much thinner
muscular wall than arteries. They contain
valves to prevent back flow of blood as blood
is at a lower pressure in veins than arteries.

CAPILLARIES
Transport blood
between arteries and
veins
Form large networks
(capillary beds)
Exchange of materials
between blood and
cells
Their walls are only
one cell thick,
allowing nutrients and
waste to diffuse
through with ease.

Capillaries

Arteriole

Capillaries
(capillary bed)

Venule

Capillaries
Capillaries are only one cell thick to allow
exchange of substances with tissues.

 (i) The exchange of materials between

tissue fluid and cells through pressure
filtration and the role of lymph vessels.
Similarity of tissue fluid and blood plasma
with the exception of plasma proteins.

Tissue Fluid and the Lymphatic

system

Lymphatic system

 http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Q530H1WxtOw

Comparison of contents of plasma and tissue

fluid
Plasma

Tissue fluid

Protein e.g. red blood cells

No protein

Oxygen and carbon dioxide

Oxygen and carbon dioxide

glucose, amino acids

glucose, amino acids

water

water

Tissue fluid
Dissolved substances move out through the
capillary walls by pressure filtration, forming
tissue fluid. Tissue fluid is similar to blood
plasma except it does not contain plasma
proteins e.g. red blood cells. Tissue fluid
surrounds cells and supplies them with glucose,
amino acids, oxygen and other useful
substances. Carbon dioxide and other
metabolic waste (waste produced by chemical
reactions in the cell) diffuse out of the cells
and into the tissue fluid to be excreted.

Summary Tissue Fluid

and Lymphatic System

Lymph
passes into
lymphatic
system

Blood
leaving in
venule

Lymph
vessel

low
pressure

Some tissue
fluid enters
capillary by
osmosis
Some tissue
fluid enters
lymphatic
system

Blood
arriving in
the
arteriole
high
pressure

capillar
y
Some plasma
forced out of
capillary

Respiring
cell
Tissue fluid

 Case study on disorders of the lymphatic system.

Suitable examples include the effect of kwashiorkor on
fluid balance and elephantiasis.

Lymphatic system
Excess tissue fluid is absorbed by lymphatic
vessels which are found around cells in each
tissue, forming lymph fluid. The lymph fluid
eventually returns to the blood.

 (b) The structure and function of the heart.

(i) Cardiac function and cardiac output.
Definition of cardiac output and its
calculation.

Cardiac Function and Cardiac

Output

Heart Rate (HR)

Number of times heart beats in one minute
Normal values around 72bpm
Normal range is between 60-90

Stroke Volume (SV)

Volume of blood ejected by each ventricle
during contraction
The heart pumps the same volume of blood
through the ventricles during each beat.
~ 70ml

Cardiac Output
Cardiac Output is the volume of blood pumped by
each ventricle per minute and is the function of
two factors:
Heart rate (beats per minute)
Stroke volume (the volume of blood ejected by
each ventricle during each contraction)

CO = HR x SV

 Measuring pulse rate in arteries using pulsometer.

Calculate cardiac output under different conditions.

Some typical values for cardiac output at varying levels of

activity
Activity
Level

Heart rate Stroke

(bpm)
Volume
(ml)

Cardiac
Output
(l/min)

Rest

72

70

Mild

100

110

11

Moderate

120

112

13.4

Heavy
(athlete)

200

150

30

Cardiac output
Heart rate (HR) = number of beats of the heart
per minute (bpm)
Stroke volume (SV) = volume of blood ejected by
each ventricle during contraction (ml).
The left and right ventricles pump the same
volume of blood through their arteries each time.
Cardiac output (CO) measures the volume of
blood pumped out by each ventricle per minute.
To calculate this:
CO = HR x SV

 http://www.phschool.com/science/biology_place/labbench
/lab10/intro.html

Cardiac function

The Heart

Atrioventricular valve
Semi-lunar valve
Atrioventicular valve

Semi-lunar valve

 The opening and closing of the AV and SL

valves are responsible for the heart sounds
which can be heard with a stethoscope.

 (ii) The cardiac cycle to include the

functions atrial systole, ventricular systole,
diastole. Effect of pressure changes on
atrio-ventricular (AV) and semi lunar (SL)
valves.

THE CONDUCTING
SYSTEM OF THE HEART

Stuart brown stooibrown@yahoo.com

Cardiology. As a youngster I had a cardiac pacemaker.
Two, actually. I still have one of them, plus the x-ray of
the damn thing in my chest. So I can talk a bit about
what it did for me (and what it didn't do) and the sorts
of tests which were done on me to examine my heart's
performance.

Cardiac cycle

The cardiac cycle consists of three stages:

1.

Atrial systole

2. Ventricular systole
3. Diastole

Cardiac cycle
1.

Atrial systole

Pressure in the atria builds up as muscles of the atria walls contract,

forcing blood through the AV valves into the ventricles. AV valves open, SL
valves shut.
2. Ventricular systole
Pressure in the ventricles build up as muscles of the ventricle walls
contract, forcing blood through the SL valves into the arteries. SL valves
open, AV valves shut.
3. Diastole
Pressure decreases in both atria and ventricles as muscles relax.
Blood flows back into the atria and starts to flow into the ventricles. The
higher pressure in the arteries closes the SL valves. AV valves open, SL
valves shut.

Pure Science Specials - Of Hearts and

Minds
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Xwx5fbElMfk
50 mins

 (iii) The structure and function of cardiac

conducting system including nervous and
hormonal control.
Control of contraction and timing by cells of
the sino-atrial node (SAN) and atrioventricular node (AVN). Interpretation of
electrocardiograms (ECG).
The medulla regulates the rate of the SAN
through the antagonistic action of the
autonomic nervous system (ANS).
Sympathetic accelerator nerves release
adrenaline (epinephrine) and slowing
parasympathetic nerves release
acetylcholine.

Regulation of the Cardiac

Cycle

Sino-atrial node (SAN) and Atrial

Ventricular node (AVN)

Electrical activity of the heart

http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=v3b-YhZmQu8&featur
e=related

Cardiac conducting system

The heart beat is regulated by both nervous
and hormonal control.
Nervous control:
Cells of the sino atrial node (SAN), also known
as the pacemaker, in the right atrium set the
pace at which cardiac cells contract without
conscious thought. They are called
autorhythmic.
The SAN generates an electrical impulse which
spreads throughout the atria, causing atrial
systole. The impulse reaches the AVN which
then carries the impulse across the ventricles,
causing ventricular systole.

Autonomic Nervous System

 The autonomic nervous system (ANS) consists

of 2 antagonistic (opposing) branches
Sympathetic nerve
Parasympathetic nerve

Sympathetic
Sympathetic accelerator
nerves
Release adrenaline
(epinephrine)
Increases heart rate

Parasympathetic
Parasympathetic slowing
nerves
Release acetylcholine
Decreases heart rate

The medulla region in the brain regulates the rate of

the SAN through the Autonomic Nervous System
(ANS). It contains two branches which work in
Antagonistic (opposing) ways.
Sympathetic accelerator nerves release
adrenaline (epinephrine) which increases heart rate.
Slowing parasympathetic nerves release
acetylcholine which decreases heart rate.

ABPI schools
Adrenaline animation:
http://www.abpischools.org.uk/page/modules/hormones/
horm8.cfm?coSiteNavigation_allTopic=1

Hormonal Regulation of the Heart

Under certain
circumstances e.g.
stress or exercise the
sympathetic nervous
system causes the
adrenal glands to
produce adrenaline
which travels in the
blood to act on the SAN,
which generates
impulses at a higher
rate, increasing heart
rate

Hormonal Regulation of the Heart

Under certain
circumstances e.g.
stress or exercise the
sympathetic nervous
system causes the
adrenal glands to
produce adrenaline
which travels in the
blood to act on the SAN,
which generates
impulses at a higher
rate, increasing heart
rate

 Hormonal control:
Under circumstances such as stress and exercise, the
sympathetic nervous system causes the adrenal glands to
produce the hormone adrenaline which acts on the SAN to
increase heart rate.

 The impulses generated by the SAN creates

currents that can be detected by an
electrocardiogram (ECG).
P wave atrial systole
QRS waves ventricular systole
S wave - diastole

ABNORMAL ECGS

Atrial flutter

Rapid contraction of the atria

Atria contract 3 times for every ventricular contraction

ABNORMAL ECG

Ventricular tachycardia

Ventricles beat rapidly and independently of the atria

ABNORMAL ECGS

Ventricular fibrillation

Unco-ordinated electrical activity

Pumping cannot take place

Fatal if not corrected

Defibrillation

 (iv) Blood pressure changes, in response to

cardiac cycle, and its measurement.
Blood pressure changes in the aorta during
the cardiac cycle. Measurement of blood
pressure using a sphygmomanometer. A
typical reading for a young adult is 120/70
mmHg. Hypertension is a major risk factor
for many diseases including coronary heart
disease.

blood pressure measurement

http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=ElCbQMiBC6A&NR=1

Blood pressure
Blood pressure changes in the aorta during the cardiac
cycle. It can be measured using a sphygmomanometer.

 An inflatable cuff stops blood flow and deflates gradually.

The blood starts to flow (detected by a pulse) at systolic
pressure. The blood flows freely through the artery (and a
pulse is not detected) at diastolic pressure.
A typical reading for a young adult is 120/70 mmHg.

High blood pressure, known as hypertension, is a

major risk factor for many diseases including
coronary heart disease.