SOCIOANTHROPOLOGY

What is Sociology
Derived from two terms:
-logus(science or study) Deals with the study of
-socius(group or partners)groups.
According to Joseph Fichter- sociology is the scientific
study of patterned, shared human behavior.
The social behavior of human beings has been an
interesting subject of study all through the recorded
history of man. The ways in which people act toward
one another, that is, social relations, have been
scrutinized, discussed and described by historians and
politicians, poets and storytellers, theologians and
philosophers.
The story of what happened is the story of people in
social life.

 The term sociology was first used about a hundred

years ago by Auguste Comte- a Frenchman.

At that time, the scholars who called themselves
sociologists were what we call today social historians
and social philosophers.
Rodney Stark, a sociologist, sociology deals with the
study of the patterns and processes of human
relations.
Some sociologists concentrate on the study of small
groups and the patterns and processes of face-to-face
interactions between humans.(MICROSOCIOLOGY)
MACROSOCIOLOGY- the individual is simply one
small dot among the many dots that comprise a big
picture of many individuals, and many big groups.
It is clear that the focus of Sociology is not on
individuals and individual behavior but on social
behavior.(primary subject is the group)

AREAS OF SOCIOLOGY
1. Social Organization- This covers the study of the various

social institutions, social groups, social stratification, social

mobility, bureaucracy, ethnic groups and relations and other
similar topics.
Other topics: family, education, politics, religion, economy
2. Social Psychology- this deals with the study of human nature
as an outcome of group life, social attitudes, collective
behavior and personality formation. It deals with group life
and the individuals traits, attitudes and beliefs as
influenced by group life. IT VIEWS MAN WITH REFERENCE TO
GROUP LIFE.
3. Social Change and Social Disorganization- This area includes
the study of the change in culture and social relations and
the disruption that may occur in society.
It deals with the study of such current social problems in
society such as juvenile delinquency, criminality, drug
addiction, family conflicts, divorce, population problems

AREAS OF SOCIOLOGY
4. Human Ecology- It studies the nature and behavior of a given
population and its relationships to the groups present social
institutions. For instance studies of this kind have shown the
prevalence on mental illness, criminality, delinquencies,
prostitution, and drug addiction in urban centers and other
highly developed places.
5. Population or Demography- This is concerned with the study
of population number, composition, change, and quality as
they influence the economic, political, and social system.
6. Sociological Theory and Method- This is concerned with the
applicability and usefulness of the principles and theories of
group life as bases for the regulation of mans social
environment.
7. Applied Sociology- This utilizes the findings of pure
sociological research in various fields such as criminology,
social work, community devt., education, industrial relations,
marriage, ethnic relations the like

What is Anthropology?
The word Anthropology is taken from the Greek

words logos, means study, or logia to study,

and anthropos, which means man
The key words to remember are SCIENTIFIC,
STUDY, MAN, WORKS, BODY, BEHAVIOR, VALUES,
TIME, AND SPACE.
defines its self as a discipline of infinite curiosity
about human beings.
as branch of knowledge which deals with the
scientific study of man, his works, his body, his
behaviour and values, in time and space. It is the
scientific study of physical, social, and cultural
development, and behavior of human beings
since their appearance on earth.

What are the works of

Anthropologists?
seek to answer an enormous variety
of questions about human beings.
are interested in discovering WHEN,
WHERE, AND WHY humans appeared
on earth, HOW and WHY they have
changed since then, and how and
why modern populations vary in
certain physical features.

 they are also interested in how and why

societies in the past and present have varied

in their customary ideas in practices.
Some anthropologists claim that a definition

of anthropology as the study of human beings

is NOT COMPLETE.
WHY?
- because it incorporate a whole catalog of
discipline: sociology, psychology, political
science, economics, history, human biology,
and perhaps even humanistic disciplines of
philosophy and literature.

MAN, the Main Concern in

Anthropology
study of man- central concern in

anthropology
MAN- is not only the measure of all things but
is the main focus and unit of INVESTIGATION
and INVESTIGATION in this field.
- is studied and analyzed regardless of color
of the skin, the nature of his commitment to
ideology, or the level of his technological
advancement.
Anthropologist study man, whether he is a
communist or a democrat, a Chinese or a
Japanese etc.

 Anthropology deals with mans works or

mans achievements.
Achievements maybe in the form of :
- art, sciences, technology, literature, music,
architecture, sculpture and inventions in
various fields

BRANCHES OF
ANTHROPOLOGY
General Classifications:
Physical ( a.k.a biological anthropology)
Deals with mans biological foundations, race, evolution,
racial classifications and differentiation.
It concentrates on the study of mans physical
characteristics, the processes by which the biological
changes occur, and the resultant human variations.
Subdisciplines:
1.
racial history- nature of race
2.
paleontology- origin of man
3.
human genetics- various ways of inheritance that take
place in man.
Cultural ( a.k.a social anthropology)
-It deals with one of the most significant and revolutionary
concepts in the social sciences- the concept of CULTURE
- It deals with the different patterns of life in a society.

Cultural Anthropologist- often called as

ETHNOGRPHERs or ETHNOLOGISTs , describe, analyze,

and attempt to account for the wide variety of
customs and forms of social life of human beings,
particularly of people with primitive technologies.
Sub disciplines:
1. Ethnography- pure description of the culture of a
people or an ethic group
*Ethnographer- one type of researcher who usually
spends a year or so living with, talking to and observing
the people whose customs he or she is studying.
2. Ethnology- analysis, comparison and contrast of
cultures
3. Social Anthropology- one evolves generalizations
about social life and conduct based on the ethnography
and ethnology of the culture under study

4. Cultural Anthropology- deals with the total

life of man in time and space
5. Archaeology- concerned with the study of
mans culture and society in the past, as far
back in time as prehistoric
Fossils and Artifacts- evaluation of prehistoric
6. Linguistics- refers to the systematic study
of recorded and unrecorded languages all over
the world.
However, in view of the expansion of the scope

and sophistication in the methods of the

discipline, the following FOUR SUBDISCIPLINES
ARE GENERALLY ACCEPTED.

RELATIONSHIP WITH OTHER SOCIAL

SCIENCES
Both sociology and anthropology are social

sciences. Sociology does not study behavior that is

not social. Sociologists may be interested in
economic and political influences on human
interactions, but they do not try to explain those
influences.
On the other hand, anthropologists study the product
of mans association with other men.
The following Social Sciences contribute information
useful to sociological and anthropological analyses.
A. Psychology- This concentrates on the processes
occurring within the individual. Psychologists deal
with what takes place within what they call the
skinbound organism.

B. History- It focuses on the study of past events.

Historians
attempt
to
unearth the facts
surrounding an event that they feel is in some
way of social significance.
C. Economics- Primarily concerned with the study of
a single social institution. Economists concentrate
on the production, distribution,, and allocation of
the material goods and services.
== Economics is therefore the study of wealthgetting and wealth-using activities of man.
D. Political Science- This focuses on the study of
politics or government. The political scientist
studies the ways people govern themselves: the
various forms of government, their structures and
their relationships to other institutions in society.

RELEVANCE OF ANTHROPOLOGY AND

SOCIOLOGY
The following may be considered the importance of the study of

sociology and anthropology:

1. The study introduces us to various concepts and principles vital in
our understanding of culture and society.
2. Through the study of these two disciplines, we are able to see
ourselves as parts of a larger social pattern. This expands our
view of the world, thereby appreciating society and culture better.
3. This study will make us understand better why people of different
groups and culture behave the way they do. Through this
understandings we may be able to adjust ourselves to their
unusual ways and patterns.
4. It will give us the insight that our group is different from others.
Through this, we may be led to respect the identity and unique
nature of other groups and members of such groups.
5. A study of these two sciences will be helpful in promoting interethnic and cultural understanding. It can promote national unity
and progress, and international understanding through the
promotion and cross-cultural knowledge.

PIONEERS OF ANTHROPOLOGY

-Auguste Comte
-Herbert Spencer
-Emile Durkheim
- Karl Marx
-Max Weber
- Ferdinand Toennis
-George Simmel
- Edward Taylor
-William Graham Sumner - A.R Radcliffe Brown
-Friedrich Engels
- Thornstein Veblen
- Bronislaw Malinowski
- Pitirim Sorokin
-Talcott Parsons
Filipino:
-Serafin Macaraig
-Marcelo Tangco

- Juan Ruiz
- Flora Diaz Catapusan

Auguste Comte
POSITIVE PHILOSOPHY first book
Social physics- study of sociology on a higher

level
Apply the methods of science in the study of

society- to IMPROVE SOCIETY

Herbert Spencer
Social Statics- a systematic presentation of

sociological analysis- often called as the

FIRST SOCIOLOGY BOOK
CENTRAL FOCUS OF WORKS:
Application of Darwins theory of evolution to
SOCIAL LIFE
HUMAN SOCIETIES EVOLVEDsimple(primitive) to more complex
NATURAL SELECTION- societies that adapt to
their environment and compete successfully
will persist

Karl Marx
Major focus: social conflict
Social Change- brought about the process of

conflict between two opposing classes

Material Conditions- core of class conflict
E.g. owners of the means of productionoppressors
own nothing but labor- oppressed

Emile Durkheim
Major focus: SOCIAL FORCES that hold the

society together- based on shared values and

beliefs of the members of the society
Types of Societal Solidarity:
mechanical- similar tasks
Organic differences due to peoples various
tasks

Max Weber
SOCIAL CHANGE
ADOPT THE METHODS OF OTHER

DISCIPLINES for the study of human social life

 SOCIAL LIFE- governed by the laws of conflict

and competition- SURVIVAL OF THE FITTEST

Ferdinand Toennis
all social relations are creations of human will, of

which there two types: 1) essential will- basic

instinctive, organic tendency which drives human
activity
- dominates the life of peasant, artisans, common
men
2) arbitrary will- deliberate, purposive form of volition
which determines human activity with regard to the
future
- characterizes the activities of businessmen,
scientists, persons of authority, and members of the
upper class.

George Simmel
society cannot be understood as a psychic

entity independent of individual minds, as a

kind of mysticism or conceptualism that
ascribes reality to mere concepts

THE STUDY OF
CULTURE

THE STUDY OF CULTURE

What is culture?

Latin word- cultura- meaning care or cultuscivilization

:This is based on the fact that the human person
has a long period of dependency and has to be
taken care of by the people around him.
: The culture of the group to which an individual
is born provides him the needed care and
attention as he grows into a mature person. It is
along this framework that the differences in the
culture of different places become evident as
reflected in the care and training provided to
the individual.

When we meet someone from a different

culture, what do you immediately notice
in that person?
The persons culture becomes immediately

evident to us.
We notice the following:
clothing, mannerism, language, beliefs, taste
for food, etc.
* The characteristics, which may contrast
sharply with our own, alert us to broad
differences in the way the person was raisedto that persons culture.

Meaning...
refers to that complex whole which includes

knowledge, beliefs, art, moral, laws, customs,

and any other capabilities and habits acquired
by man as a member of society. (Edward
Taylor)
an organized body of conventional
understandings manifest in art and artifacts,
which, persisting through tradition,
characteristics a human group. (Robert
Redfield)

Other meanings / Explanations...

Culture may be thought of as DESIGN FOR

LIVING or a road map that the behavior of

members of a society, permitting them to live
together in an organized, orderly manner.
Mans social heritage which has been
transmitted from one generation to another
through language.
is the total configuration of institutions that
people in a given society share in common.
: configuration- web, matrix, or network in
which the related and coordinate institutions
function as a whole system.

Types of Culture
1. Material Culture- includes objects or artifactsthings that human beings create by altering the
natural environment.
They are easy to observe and are often impressive.
E.g dwelling units, tools, weapons and implements,
clothing, stone axes, wooden chair, book, and other
concrete elements of culture that can be perceived
as an important part or product of any behavior
system of man, past, present and future.
MATERIAL CULTURE therefore- refers to the concrete
and tangible things that man creates and uses.
Range: from the prehistoric stone tools of the
primitive man to the most advanced computer of
modern man.

2. Nonmaterial Culture- refers to the nonmaterial things or intangible objects which the
person uses, follows, professes, or strives to
conform
consists of words people use, the habits they
follow, the ideas, customs, behavior, of any
society profess and to which they strive to
conform.

Examples of Non-material Culture

1. Beliefs- mans perception about the reality

of things and are shared ideas about how the

environment operates.
2. Knowledge- body of facts and beliefs that
people acquire and accumulate over time
3. Norms- guides or models of behavior which
tell how people should behave in a particular
situation; what people ought or not ought to
do.
4. Sanctions- prescribed norms of conduct
exposed by society to an individual for him
to conform to moral standards and accept
those that are favorable to a group.

COMPONENTS OF CULTURE

Norms
- often described as social norms

- these are guides or models of behavior

which tell us what is proper and which
are not, appropriate or inappropriate,
right or wrong.
-they set limits within which individuals
may seek alternatives or ways to
achieve their goals.
-regulate peoples behavior in a given
society.

How can we implement norms?

How is norms being followed or manifested?
Why is it that people have to follow norms of their
society?
usually in the form of rules, standards, or

prescriptions followed by people who follow

certain standards or roles.
For instance, norms of conduct for doctors,
nurses, teachers, military, engineers etc.
In social interaction process, each member

possesses certain expectations about the

others` responses and reacts accordingly.
These expectations are of common knowledge
to the group.
When violated or non-conformity: results to
(mild)disapproval by the whole society

NORMS
Folkways- customary patterns of everyday

life that specify what is socially correct and

proper in everyday life.
Folkways are great mass of usages of all
degrees of importance, covering all interests
in life, embodying a life philosophy, forming a
character, and containing a life policy.
are the customary ways
they are repetitive or the typical habits and
patterns of expected behavior followed within
a group of community.

Forms of Folkways
A. Customs- repetitive ways of doing things
e.g.
Manner and style of dressing
Marriage ceremony
Hand kissing(as a sign of respect)
Activities in eating, fighting, birth, death, burial
B. Traditions- ways of believing
e.g.
Belief in God(gods)
Belief in life after death
Belief in superstition

Examples of Folkways...
shaking of hands
bathing frequently
not drinking liquor in church
They are considered the the right way but

are not rigidly enforced by society.

Sanctions: ridicule, raised eyebrows, critical
and sarcastic remarks, disapproval or
embarrassment

 Mores- extremely important and are

considered vital for the groups welfare and

survival.
While folkways specify socially correct and
proper behavior, MORES define what is
morally right and wrong
Therefore they are with ethical and moral
significance with are strongly held and
emphasized.

Include...
codes of ethics and standards of morality in

society.
E.g standards on sex behavior, family
relations, attitudes toward authority, religion
Consequence when violated:

- Strong disapproval, severe punishment,

ostracized, imprisoned, killed

CHANGE(folkways and mores)...gradual

and slow
e.g.
women were not allowed to smoke and drink,

or wear pants during formal occasions before

Boys were always expected to keep their
haircut short.

LAWS
Laws-norms that are enforced formally by a

special political organization.

They are formalized social norms enacted by
people who have been vested through the
machinery of the state.
component of culture regulating or
controlling the peoples behavior and conduct.
ENFORCING AGENCIES: police, courts, prisons,
etc.

LAWS vs. FOLKWAYS AND MORES

Laws are enforced formally by a special

political organization composed of persons

authorized to use force if necessary.
Laws are the results of conscious thought
and deliberate planning.
Laws are more adaptable to changing
conditions than are folkways and mores.
The degree of disapproval and punishment of
the violator of a law varies according to which
law is broken.
Many mores are incorporated into law and
serve to reinforce them.

Examples....
Constitution of any country
Declaration of Human Rights
Traffic Laws
Civil and Criminal Laws
City and Municipal Ordinances
Nursing Law
School Policies and Regulations

VALUES( another component of CULTURE)

represent the standards we use to evaluate

the desirability of things.

Define what is right, good and moral
shape its normative system and guide the
behavior of its people.
EACH society has certain values that tend to
set it apart and help distinguish it from other
societies.

JAIME BULATAO ( FILIPINO VALUES)

JAIME BULATAO ( FILIPINO VALUES)
1. Emotional Closeness and Security in the
Family.
Double Function of Family
-provides an outlet for the need of a person to
get out of himself and come out into contact
with another person in a free and unguarded
emotional exchange
-provides understanding, acceptance, a place
where no matter how far or how wrongly
one has wandered, he can always return.

ROBIN WILLIAMS(
many society)

identified major value orientations of

1. Achievement and Success

(occupational success)
2. Activity and Works
3. Moral orientation (Ethical
Principles)
4. Humanitarianism (Material
Generosity)
5. Efficiency and Practicality

LANGUAGE
refers to a system of symbols that have

specific and arbitrary meaning in a given

society.
sets human beings apart from other species
with the use of language, we can go beyond
just transmitting simple feelings and emotions
in the here and how, but it enables us to
talk and think about the past and the future.
makes it possible for us to learn from others
experiences and to accumulate knowledge
from one generation to the next.

Fashion, Fads, Crazes

they are more short-lived social norms with

which people are expected to comply with.

they may operate as forces of social change
e.g
new styles of clothes, bags, shows, and
hairdo
include also new style in houses, cars,
appliances, shows and even music

CHARACTERISTICS OF CULTURE
(The most fundamental characteristics of culture remain the
same everywhere and through all time.)

Culture is learned and acquired

It has to be understood that not all things

shared generally by a population are CULTURAL.

For something to be considered CULTURAL, it
must be learned as well as shared.
Culture is not instinctive(its there already), it is
acquired by each person through the senses
and from experience.
No one is born equipped with a particular
language, or a knowledge of religious beliefs.

 Culture may be acquired through imitation,

conditioning, suggestion, formal or informal

instruction, or mass media.
Its acquisition follows a system of reward and
punishment. It is for this reason that a certain
uniformity in all culture is possible

 Culture is shared and transmitted.

A society is viewed as any large number of

people who share and transmit a common culture

among themselves.
How does man transmit culture?
Generally, man transmits culture by means of

IDEAS.
These IDEAS are descriptions of technical
processes
Other IDEAS are condensed and compressed as
MENTAL IMAGES which convey abstractions such
democracy, love, beauty, freedom, justice, etc.

Culture is social.

Is a group(social group) product developed by many

persons interacting in a group.

It is a result of the groups accumulation of knowledge
and expectations. These group habits and knowledge
are shared by the members of the group and are kept
relatively uniform by certain social mechanisms.
Culture is social due to mans natural tendency of
sociability and gregariousness.
NO MAN IS AN ISLAND- HE IS ALWAYS PART OF
A GROUP.
It is this gregariousness of man that makes him
associate with his fellow humans, and as a result,
CULTURE is formed, the by-product of his association
with others.

Culture is ideational.
Man forms ideas and uses them to assign

meanings to his environment and

experiences. Therefore, symbols are utilized.
Any individual sees and approaches his world
according to the standpoint of his culture.
Within any given culture are patterns of habits
and expectations which every member is
expected to follow.

 Culture gratifies human needs.

An individual is likely to utilize habitually a

cultural technique which gratifies him in some

way.
Culture has provision to satisfy the biological and
socio-cultural needs of people.
biological needs: need for food, shelter, clothing,
protection, love, security, sex, etc. can be
satisfied through the different components of
culture.
The patterns of culture continuous to persist if
they continue to satisfy mans needs.

Culture is adaptive.

All cultures are dynamic, they change overtime.

These changes are adjustments to the prevailing

environment.
The culture of any society is the peoples
adjustment to the various conditions of life
which include their physical, social, and
supernatural environment.
Changes nay be in the form of discoveries,
inventions, cultural barrowings
For instance: the dwelling units of people
depend on the climatic condition prevailing in
the area; their clothing depends on the
prevailing climate or weather in the place

 When we say adaptive, we mean it is

adaptive only with respect to a specific

physical and social environment. What may
be adaptive to one environment may not be
adaptive in another environment.
Therefore, when we ask why a society may
have a particular customs, we are really
asking if that custom makes sense as an
adaptation to that societys particular
environmental conditions.

Introduction...adaptation
One major characteristic of culture is being

adaptive. It can be said that culture has

existed whenever human beings have lived in
group life. Its origin as a whole, is
simultaneous with the origin of the society.
However, culture vary greatly from one
society to another , from one period to
another, and to a lesser degree, a culture may
vary internally from one institution to another.
Man is one, but cultures are many. This is so
since there are many factors involved in the
process of culture adaptation.

Forms Adaptation of Culture

(How is adaptation of culture occurs?)

1. Parallelism- refers to the independent

development of a culture characteristic in two
widely separated cultures.
There is no historical evidence that the use of the
wheel, or the arch of buildings, or of domesticated
dogs, pigs, and other animals was originated by
one people in only one place.
2. Diffusion- common process of patterns and traits
passing back and forth from one culture to another.
-e.g behavior patterns, food, custom, religious
practices, rituals, festivities

3. Fission- process that can be traced historically when a

long-established society breaks up into two or more
independent units.
-e.g. the various tribes of North American Indians, the
Eskimos, and the Appalachian hill folks, the Aetas of
Zambales, the Monobos, the Igorots of Bontoc province, the
Dumagatas of Palanan Isabela, and the Balugas of Bulacanwho have broken away from their cultural origins and have
developed different internal cultural traits.
4. Convergence- is the fusion of two or more cultures into a
new one which is somewhat different from its
predecessors.
e.g the Norman Invasion of England, the fusion of the
Moorish and Spanish cultures, and the convergence of
Roman and Germanic traits.
Given by JOSEPH FICHTER

Culture tends toward integration.

Over a period of time, any culture will exhibit

a tendency toward a coherence of its

elements.
For instance, it would be obviously impossible
for the people of a society to give full
appreciation in their behaviour to the
contradictory standards that women are to be
respected and treated with gentleness and
kindness but that is the duty of every
husband to give his wife a good beating every
few days to keep her in her place.
One standard will tend to be dropped or some
compromise worked out.

 In saying that a culture is mostly integrated,

we mean that the elements or traits that

make up that culture are not just a random
assortment of customs but are mostly
adjusted to or consistent with one another.
If certain customs are more adaptive in
particular settings, then those bundles of
traits will generally be found associated under
similar conditions.
A culture may also tend to be integrated for
psychological reasons.

Culture is cumulative.
Through the ages, the people of any given

place are able to retain certain features of

their culture that are significant in their
relationship and interaction with their fellow
humans.
Examples: components of some Filipino old
songs being accumulated and included in
current Filipino music and the architectural
designs of houses being infused in the
housing designs of the present time.

FUNCTIONS OF CULTURE
A culture exists to systematize the

satisfaction of the social needs of people. The

means for satisfaction are the various major
and subsidiary institutions that constitute the
culture.
The culture as a whole performs a number of
functions distinct from the objectives of the
various institutions

TWO USES OF CULTURE

Culture as a category.
By using the construct of culture, the social scientist classifies

phenomena and thereby defines the scope of his field. Through

classification which uses categories, man is able to segregate
things that must occupy his priority.

Culture as a tool in prediction.

Prediction of social behavior depends upon understanding how

the human organism will react to its environment. Because

culture is learned and internalized by all individuals in a society, it
is part of their subjective way of responding to stimuli.
Consequently, though cultures and the portions of culture known
to different individuals in the same social group may vary,
knowledge about what a person or a group has learned, or
internalized, provides some basis for predicting future behavior.

SPECIFIC FUNCTIONS OF CULTURE

(distinct from the objectives of the various social institutions)

Culture serves as trademark or special

feature that distinguishes one society from

another.
It characterizes a people more meaningfully
and more scientifically than the color of their
skin or any other physiological marking.
It provides for the student of society a basis
for distinguishing peoples that is much more
realistic than territorial and political
boundaries and so called national
characteristics.

 Culture brings together, contains, and interprets the

values of a society in a more or less systematic manner.

-Through culture, people discover the meaning and
purpose of both social and individual living. Meanings
and values become integrated in and through the
culture of a given society.
Culture provides one of the most important bases for

social solidarity.
It inspires loyalty and devotion to associates in the
society in general.
Culture provides the people of any society the
knowledge of the common objectives of such society,
which all of them try to accomplish.
In this way, common feelings, common sentiments, and
common aspirations are developed, THEREBY ATTAINING
A COMMON NATIONAL PRIDE.

 Culture provides a blueprint of, as well as the

materials for social structure.

It systematizes social behavior so that the person
participates in society without the necessity of
constantly relearning and inventing ways of doing
things. Culture relates and coordinates all various
segments of the behavior of individuals and groups.
The culture of any society is the dominant factor in

establishing and moulding the social personality.

- It is a fact that in any given society, a sort of
cultural stamp is always observed despite the
differences in the individuals. Ones social
personality is the product of his culture.

 The culture of a society provides behavioral

patterns.
- The behavior of people in any given society is
governed by culture. It provides them with
some norms to follow. As a result of this, there
is a coherent, consistent, and systematic
pattern of behavior manifested by the
individuals in the society. This will explain why
a student will not come wearing her bathing
suit when attending her classes.

 Culture provides individuals with the meaning

and direction of his existence.

- Not only individual aspirations and objectives
will guide the individual in his quest for
meaning but also the objectives of the group
of the group and community where he is a
participant, and the concepts and motives of
the society where he belongs; all of these will
certainly shape his lifes meaning and
direction.

MODES OF ACQUIRING CULTURE

Generally speaking, there are three ways by

which culture may be acquired:1. by example

and imitation, 2. by indoctrination or formal
training, and 3. by conditioning through a system
of rewards and punishment.
It is said that culture acquisition is primarily an
intellectual
process
(it
involves
mental
process/works of the mind). Its material aspects
become meaningful only because of our mind.
Because of this nature, man possesses the ability
to learn his cultural environment. Learning or
acquiring culture may involve any or all of the
following modes:

1. Imitation
The process of socialization plays a very important

role in the development of every individual. As the

child grows, he imitates the things around him: the
language of the people around him; and his
parents behavior.
He also acquires the values he sees in his family.
He imitates even the undesirable traits from his
peer group.
The process of imitation becomes possible because
of the examples set by the social environment. And
the individual continually undergoes the process of
imitation even in his adult life.

2. Indoctrination
This may take the form of formal training

which may take place anywhere the individual

finds himself interacting with his fellow
humans. This formal teachings takes into
account the cultural components of the
society where the learning individuals lives.

3. Conditioning
Through the social norms prevailing in ones

social and cultural milieu, the individual

acquires a certain pattern of beliefs, values,
behavior, and actions through the process of
conditioning.
This process is further reinforced by a system
of reward and punishments found in the
cultural system.

CULTURAL VARIABILITY
(VARIATIONS IN CULTURE)
Dean Champion and his associates ,they pointed

out that the range of variations between cultures

is almost endless yet at the same time cultures
resemble one another in many important ways.
All known cultures recognize certain categories
that are often referred to as cultural universals.
In the words of Murdock, cultural universals
include bodily adornment, courtship, dancing,
education, family, food taboos, funeral rites,
wedding
ceremonies,
gestures,
hospitality,
religion, and sexual restrictions.

 For example, all people adorn themselves,

but they do it in various ways.

While all people may have religion, some
believe in one god(monotheism), while others
in many gods(polytheism)
It is these cultural variations within the

cultural universals that give rise to two

important concepts: ETHNOCENTRICIM AND
CULTURAL RELATIVITY OR RELATIVISM

ETHNOCENTRICIM

Universal phenomena
This arises from the fact that cultures differ and

each culture defines reality differently.

Even in the early times, people judged other
cultures in terms of their own ideas, norms, and
values. The member of the society have a tendency
to regard their culture as the best, and superior to
those of others. Here, ones own culture is taken a
as standard against which all other cultures are
judged.
Is the tendency to view ones own culture as
superior and to apply ones own cultural values in
judging the behavior and beliefs of people raised in
other countries.

For

example, racial discrimination arises

because of the tendency of one group to
regard his own race as superior to those of the
others.

Dorothy Lee- pointed out that ethnocentrism

is a two-way stress.
- Groups that we think of as backward and
barbaric and that we feel superior to, have
similar feelings of superiority to us.

Example:
in the Trans-Fly Region(Papua New Guinea)

live several tribes in which homosexual sexual

activities are valued over heterosexual ones.
Etoro tribe- favor oral sex between men while
their neighbors
Marind-anim, encourage men to engage in
anal sex
Case of Ethnocentrism: Etero men considered
Marind-anim anal sex as to be disgusting,
while seeing nothing about their own oral sex
practice.

Cultural Relativism
in contrast with ethnocentrism
Argument that behavior in one culture should

not be judged by the standards of another

culture.
Argues that that there is no superior,
international or universal morality, that the
moral and ethical rules of all creatures
deserve equal respect.

Human Rights Advocates

challenges cultural relativism by invoking a realm of justice and

morality beyond and superior to particular countries, cultures,

and religions.
Human rights, usually seen as vested in individuals, include the
right to hold religious beliefs, without persecution, and not to be
murdered, injured, enslaved, or imprisoned without charge and
the like.
Human rights are seen as inalienable (nations cannot abridge or
terminate them) and international.
For example: several cultures in Africa and the Middle East have

traditions of female genital modification.

-Clitoridectomy- removal of a girls clitoris
-Infibulation- involves sewing the lips (labia) of the vigina so as to
constrict the viginal opening.
Both procedures reduce female sexual pleasure

Mechanism of Cultural Change

1. Diffusion- borrowing of traits between cultures or
exchange of information, customs
-direct- when two cultures trade, intermarry, or wage
war on one another.
-indirect- when items move from group A to group C
via group B without any firsthand contact between
A and C.
-forced- when one culture subjugates another and
imposes its customs on the dominated group.
2. Acculturation- exchange of cultural features that
results when groups have continuous first hand
contact.
Pidgin language(China, Papua New Guniea, West
Africa)

3. Independent Invention
Process by which humans innovate, creatively
finding solutions to problems.
Comparable problems and Challenges- people
in different cultures have innovated and
changed in similar ways, which is one reason
cultural generalities exist.
Example: independent invention of agriculture

in the Middle East and Mexico

4. Globalisation
- Encompasses a series of processes, including
diffusion and acculturation, working to
promote change in a world in which nations
and people are increasingly interlinked and
mutually dependent.

CULTURE UNIVERSALITY, GENERALITY

AND PARTICULARITY
Universality- something that exist in every

culture
Generality- culture pattern or trait that exists

in some but not all societies

Particularity- distinctive or unique culture

trait, pattern, or integration

ETHNICITY
-

means identifying with, and feeling apart of, an ethnic group.

ethnic group- describes a particular culture in a

nation or region that contains others

Nation- was once synonymous to ethnic group
Ethnicity- based on cultural similarities(among the
members of the same ethnic group) and
differences (between that group and others)
ETHNIC DISTINCTIONS: language, religion, history,

geography, kinship, or race.

RACE- ethnic group assumed to have a biological
basis

STATUSES
Misconception:
synonym for prestige
-consider this statement:`` He got a lot of
status`` meaning he got a lot of prestige.
Social Scientists- use the term status more
neutrally- for any position, no matter what the
prestige, that someone occupies in society.
Status- encompasses the various positions that
people occupy in society.

 ascribed- people have little or no choice

about occupying them.

e.g. age, race, ethnicity etc.
achieved- by contrast, are not automatic but
come through talents, choices, actions,
efforts, and accomplishments.
e.g. Physician, professor, senator, salesperson,
union member, etc.
Ascribed status- may be associated with a
position in a social or political hierarchy:
Minority groups- are subordinate/ less dominate
- have less power and less secure access to
resources
Majority groups- superordinate/ dominant

Ethnic Groups, Nations and

Nationalities
What is the relation between an ethnic group and

a nation?
Nation- was once synonymous with tribe or
ethnic group- what today we would call a culture.
State- an independent, centrally organized politica

unit- a government
Nation-state- they refer to an autonomous political

entity, a country- like United States

KINSHIP, MARRIAGE
& DESCENT

1. relatedness or connection by blood or marriage or adoption

2.kinship relation between an individual and the individuals
progenitors

Descent Principles
Kinship is reckoned in a number of

different ways around the world,

resulting in a variety of types of descent
patterns and kin groups. Anthropologists
frequently use diagrams to illustrate
kinship relationships to make them more
understandable. The symbols shown
here are usually employed. They may be
combined, as in the example below on
the right, to represent a family
consisting of a married couple and their

In kinship diagrams, one individual is

usually labeled as ego. This is the

person
to
whom
all
kinship
relationships are referred. In the case
below on the right, ego has a brother
(Br), sister (Si), father (Fa), and
mother (Mo). Note also that ego is
shown as being gender nonspecific-that is, either male or female.

Unilineal Descent Principle

This traces descent only through a single line

of ancestors, male or female.

Both males and females are members of a

unilineal family, but descent links are only

recognized through relatives of one gender.
The two basic forms of unilineal descent are

referred to as patrilineal and matrilineal .

PATRILINEAL DESCENT
With

patrilineal descent, both

males and females belong to their
father's kin group but not their
mother's. However, only males pass
on their family identity to their
children. A woman's children are
members of her husband's patrilineal
line. The red people in the diagram
below are related to each other
patrilineally.

MATRILINEAL
DESCENT
form of unilineal descent that
follows a female line is known as
matrilineal. When using this pattern,
individuals are relatives if they can
trace descent through females to the
same female ancestor. While both
male and female children are
members of their mother's matrilineal
descent group, only daughters can
pass on the family line to their
offspring. The green people below are

The

In societies using matrilineal descent, the

social relationship between children and

their biological father tends to be different
than most people would expect due to the
fact that he is not a member of their
matrilineal family. In the case of ego
below, the man who would have the
formal responsibilities that European
cultures assign to a father would be his
mother's brother (MoBr), since he is the
closest elder male kinsmen. Ego's father
would
have
the
same
kind
of
responsibilities for his sister's children.

similarly rare combination of

unilineal descent patterns is known
as parallel descent. With this
system, men trace their ancestry
through male lines and women trace
theirs through female lines. Unlike
bilineal descent each individual is a
member of only one descent group.

Ambilineal descent is still another

unusual descent system that, in a

sense, combines unilineal patterns.
Descent from either males or females
is recognized, but individuals may
select only one line to trace descent.
Since each generation can choose
which parent to trace descent
through, a family line may be
patrilineal in one generation and
matrilineal in the next.

MARRIAGE/RESIDENCE
RULES

Patrilocal

residence occurs
when a newly married couple
establishes their home near or in
the groom's father's house. This
makes sense in a society that
follows patrilineal descent (that
is, when descent is measured
only
from
males
to
their
offspring, as in the case of the
red people in the diagram below)

This is because it allows the

groom to remain near his male

relatives. Women do not remain
in their natal household after
marriage with this residence
pattern. About 69% of the world's
societies
follow
patrilocal
residence, making it the most
common.

Matrilocal

residence occurs
when a newly married couple
establishes their home near or in
the bride's mother's house. This
keeps women near their female
relatives.

Not

surprisingly, this residence

pattern is associated with matrilineal
descent (that is, when descent is
measured only from females to their
offspring, as in the case of the green
people below). Men leave their natal
households when they marry. About
13% of the world's societies have
matrilocal residence.

Avunculocal

residence
occurs when a newly married
couple establishes their home
near or in the groom's
maternal uncle's house. This
is associated with matrilineal
descent.

It occurs when men obtain statuses,

jobs, or prerogatives from their

nearest
elder
matrilineal
male
relative. Having a woman's son live
near her brother allows the older man
to more easily teach his nephew what
he needs to know in order to assume
his matrilineally inherited role. About
4% of the world's societies have
avunculocal residence.

Ambilocal

residence occurs
when a newly married couple has
the choice of living with or near
the groom's or the bride's family.
The couple may also live for a
while with one set of parents and
then move to live with the other.
About 9% of the world's societies
have ambilocal residence.

Neolocal residence occurs when a newly

married couple establishes their home

independent of both sets of relatives. While
only about 5% of the world's societies
follow this pattern, it is popular and
common in urban North America today
largely because it suits the cultural
emphasis on independence. However,
economic hardship at times makes
neolocal residence a difficult goal to
achieve, especially for young newlyweds.

PEACEFUL
COEXISTENC
E

Plural Society
Fredrik Barth(1958/1968)- defines as a society

combining ethnic contrasts, ecological

specialization(that is, use of different
environmental resources by each ethnic group),
and the economic interdependence of those
groups.
Consider his description of the Middle East(1950s):
The environment of any one ethnic group is not

only defined by natural conditions, but also by the

presence and activities of the other ethnic groups
on which it depends. Each group exploits only part
of the total environment, and leaves large parts of
it open for other groups to exploit.

Multiculturalism
The view of cultural diversity in a country as

something good and desirable; a multicultural

society socializes individuals not only into the
dominant (national) culture but also into an
ethnic culture.
The practice of many ethnic traditions.
Thus, for example in the United States,
millions of people speak both English and
another languages, they eat American foods
and ethnic foods, they celebrate both
national (Thanksgiving- July 4) and ethnicreligious holidays.

ROOTS OF ETHNIC
CONFLICT
The perception of cultural differences can

have disastrous effects on social interaction.

The roots of ethnic conflict can be political,
economic, religious, linguistic, cultural, or
``racial```.
Why do ethnic differences often lead to

conflict and violence.

The causes include a sense of injustice
because of resource distribution, economic or
political competition, and reaction to prejudice
or discrimination.

Ethnic conflict may arise in the

context of :
PREJUDICE- means devaluating (looking down on)

a group because of its assumed behavior, values,

abilities, or attributes
People are prejudiced when they hold stereotypes
about groups and apply them to individuals.
(Stereotypes are fixed ideas-often unfavorableabout what the members of a group are like)
DISCRIMINATION- refers to policies and practices
that harm a group and its members.
Discrimination may be de facto(practiced, but not
legally sanctioned) or de jure (part of the law)

 Example of de facto
Discrimination is the harsher treatment that

American minorities tend to get from the

police and the judicial system. Such unequal
treatment is not legal, but it happens anyway.
Example of de jure
United States and Southern African, blacks

and whites had different rights and privileges.

Their social interaction (mixing) are legally
curtailed.

ATTITUDINAL AND INSTITUTIONAL

DISCRIMINATION
Attitudinal Discrimination- people discriminate

against members of a group because they are

prejudiced.
Example: in the United States, members of the Ku
Klux Klan have expressed their prejudice against
blacks, Jews, and Catholics through verbal, physical,
and psychological harassment.
The most extreme form of ethnic discrimination is

GENOCIDE, the deliberate elimination of a group

through mass murder. UN defines it as `` committed
with intent to destroy, in whole or in part, a
national, ethnical, racial , or religious, as such``.

Institutional Discrimination- refers to laws,

policies, and arrangements that deny equal

rights to, or differentially harm, members of
particular groups.
Examples:
-laws that deny the rights and protections of
minorities(blacks) than whites enjoyed.
-environmental racism- refers to the systematic
use of institutionally based power...to
formulate policy decisions that will lead to the
disproportionate burden of environmental
hazards in minority communities.`` Thus, toxic
waste dumps tend to be located in areas with
nonwhite population.

EVOLUTION AND
GENETICS
CharlesDarwin and Alfred Russel

Wallace- proposed that natural selection could

explain the origin of species, as well as biological
differences and similarities among life forms.
Illustration: The giraffes neck can be used to
illustrate how natural selection works. In any
group of giraffes, there is always variation in neck
length. When dietary foliage is scare, giraffes with
longer necks can feed off the higher branches.
Giraffes with longer necks will be more likely to
transmit their genetic material to the future
generations than giraffes with shorter necks.1

18th and 19th Century- many scholars became

interested in human origins, biological diversity,

and our position within the classification of plants
and animals.
Genesis- the commonly accepted explanation at
that time about the origin of species.
CREATIONISM- according to this, biological

similarities and differences originated at the

creation.
Characteristics of life forms were seen as
immutable, they could not change.
James Ussher and John Lightfoot- a biblical scholar
made a calculation to trace the Creation to a very
specific time- October 23, 4004 B.C at 9 AM

Alternative to
Creationism...
Transformism-(also called as

Evolution)alternative to creationism
-evolutionists believed that species arose from
others through a long and gradual process of
transformation, or descent with modification.
EARLY SCHOLARS THAT INFLUENCED DARWIN:
Erasmus Darwin- grandfather in his book called
ZOONOMIA, which proclaimed the common
ancestry of all animal species.
Charles Lyell- the father of geology, Darwin read
his influential book, Principles of Geology which
exposed him to Lyells principle of
UNIFORMITARIANISM.

Uniformitarianism(geolog
y)
states that the present is the key to the past.
Explanations for past events should be

sought in the long-term action of ordinary

forces that still work today.
The earths structure has been transformed
gradually through natural forces operating for
millions of years.

Applying transformism and uniformitarianism the living things

by Darwin.

He argued that all life forms are ultimately

related.
In opposition to creationists, Darwin argued
that the number of species is not immutable
but has increased over time.
PRINCIPLE OF NATURAL SELECTION
Explain the origin of species, biological
diversity, and similarities among related life
forms.
DARWINs major contribution was the

Natural Selection
is the process by which nature selects the

forms most fit to survive and reproduce in a

given environment.
For natural selection to work on a particular
population, there must be variety within that
population, as there always is.
Operates when there is competition for
strategic resources(necessary for life) like
food, and space between the population.

Mechanisms of Genetic Evolution

1. Natural Selection
2. Mutation- occur spontaneously and

regularly, provide new biochemical formsvariety- on which natural selection operate.

Are changes in the DNA molecules of which
genes and chromosomes are built.
3. Random Genetic Drift
-this is change in allele (are biologically
different forms of a given gene) frequency
that results not from natural selection but
from chance.
4. Gene Flow- the exchange of genetic
material between populations of the same

 To understand why, compare the sorting of alleles

to a game involving a bag of 12 marbles, 6 red and

6 blue.
Step 1: you draw 6 marbles from the bag.
- Statistically, your chances of drawing 3 reds and 3
blues are less than those of getting four of one color
and two of the other.
Step 2: Fill a new bag with 12 marbles on the basis
of the ratio of marbles you drew in Step # 1.
Assume that you drew 4 reds and 2 blues: the new
bag will have 8 reds and 4 blue one.
Step 3: Draw 6 marbles from the new bag. Your
chances of drawing blues in step 3 is lower than it
was in step 1, and the probability of drawing all reds
increases. If you draw all reds, the next bag will
have only red marbles.

MAKING A LIVING
Yehudi

Cohen- an anthropologist used the term

adaptive strategy to describe a groups system of
economic production.
-Cohen argued that the most important reason for
similarities between two (or more) unrelated cultures
is their possession of a similar adaptive strategy.
TYPOLOGY OF CULTURES
based on correlations
between their economies and their social features:
FIVE ADAPTIVE STRATEGIES
-foraging
-horticulture
-agriculture
-pastoralism
-industrialism

A. FORAGING
until 10,000 years ago, people everywhere were

foragers, also known as hunter-gatherers.

Environmental differences-

did create contrasts

among worlds foragers.

Examples: people who lived in Europe during the
ice ages, were big- game hunters
Today,
hunters in Arctic still focus on large
animals and herd animals; they have much less
vegetation and variety in their diets than do
tropical foragers.
In general therefore: colder
warmer areas,
there is an increase in the number of species.

Tropics...
contain tremendous biodiversity, a great

variety of plant and animal species, many of

which have been used by human foragers.
TROPICAL FORAGERS- typically hunt and
gather a wide range of plant and animal life.

Temperate zone...(as such as in

the North Pacific Coast of North America)

foragers could also draw on a variety of land

and sea resources, including salmon, other

fish species, berries, mountain goats, seals,
and sea mammals
NEVERTHELESS, despite of differences due to

environmental variation, all foraging

economies have shared one essential feature:
PEOPLE RELY ON NATURE TO MAKE THEIR
LIVING.

10,000-12,000 years ago- animal

domestication(initially sheep and goats) and plant

cultivation (wheat and barley) began in the Middle
East.
3,000- 4,000 years later- cultivation based on different

crops such as maize, cassava(manioc), and potatoes

arose in Americas.
In both hemispheres, the new economy spread

rapidly.
Most foragers eventually turned to FOOD
PRODUCTION.
Today, almost all foragers have at least some

dependence on food production or on food producers.

However,
foraging way of life survived in certain

environments, including a few islands and

forests, along with deserts and very cold
areas- places where food production was not
practicable with simple technology.
In many areas, foragers had been exposed to

the idea of food production BUT never

adopted it because their own economies
provided a perfectly adequate and nutritious
diet- with a lot less work.

FORAGING
Correlations- association or covariation between

two variables. (Correlated variables are factors

that are linked and interrelated, such as food
intake and body weight, such that when one
increases or decreases, the other tends to change
too.)
CORRELATIONS between Economy and Social Life:
What then are the usual correlates of foraging?
People who subsist by hunting, gathering, and

fishing often live in BAND- ORGANIZED SOCIETIES.

Their basic social unit, the BAND is a small group
of fewer than a hundred people, all related by
KINSHIP or MARRIAGE

BANDS SIZE...
varies between cultures and often from one

season to the next in a given culture.

In some foraging societies, band size stays
about the same year round. In others, the
band splits up for part of the year. Families
leave to gather resources that are better
exploited by just a few people. Later, they
regroup for cooperative work and ceremonies.

B. CULTIVATION
B1. Horticulture

- Horticulture and Agriculture- are two types of

cultivation found in nonindustrial societies.
HORTICULTURE- (Cohen) is cultivation that
makes intensive use on none of the factors of
production: land, labor, capital and machinery.
-Horticulturists- use of simple tools such as hoes
and digging sticks to grow their crops.
-their fields are not permanently cultivated
and lie fallow for varying length of time.

Involves...
slash and burn techniques, clearing land by

cutting down (slashing) and burning forest or

bush or by setting fire to the grass covering
the plot.
The vegetation is broken down, pests are

killed and the ashes remain to fertilize the

soil.
Crops are then sown, tended and harvested.

Horticulture is also called

shifting cultivation"
shifts from plot to plot do not mean that the

whole village must move when plots are

abandoned.
*Move of PLOT
settlements remain
Horticulture- can support large permanent villages
Example: Kuikuru of the South American tropical
forest
-One village in the place of 150 people remained in
the same place for 90 years.
-Kuikuru houses are large and well made and great,
they would rather walk farther to their fields than
construct a new village.

Move of PLOT

settlements also move

Example: Montana(Andean foothills) in Peru
live in small villages of about 30 people.
-Their houses are small and simple
After a few years in one place, these people
build new villages near virgin land. They
prefer rebuilding to walking even a half mile
to their fields.

B2. Agriculture
Is cultivation that requires more labour than

horticulture does, because it use land intensively

and continuously.
The greater labor demands associated with
agriculture reflects its common use of domesticated
animals, irrigation, or terracing.
Domesticated Animals: means of production- for
transport, as cultivating machines, and for their
manure.
Irrigation: agriculturists can schedule their planting
in advance because they control water.
Example is the Ifugao Rice Terraces- which irrigates
their fields with canals from rivers, streams, springs,
and ponds.
Terracing

B3. Pastoralism- food-producing strategy of

adaptation based on care of herds of

domesticated animals.
( N. Africa, Middle East, Europe, Asia, subSaharan Africa)
- these herders are people whose activities
focus on such domesticated animals(sheeps,
cattles, goats, camels, yaks)
Pastoralists- live in symbiosis with their herds.
(Symbiosis is an obligatory interaction between
groups-here humans and animals- that is
beneficial to each)

Pastoralism
1. Pastoral Nomadism- the entire group- men,
women, and children- moves with the animals
throughout the year.
Example: Middle East(Iran- Basseri and Qashqai),
North Africa
2. Transhumance- part of the group moves with the
herds, but most people stay in the home village.
Example: Europe(Europes Alps- it is just the
shepherds and goatherds- not the whole villagewho accompany the flocks to highland meadows
in summer) and Africa (Uganda- men and boys
accompany the herds to distant pastures, while
much of the village stays put and does some
horticultural farming.

MODES OF PRODUCTION-

way of
organizing production- a set of social relations through which
labor is deployed to wrest energy from nature by means of
tools, skills, organization, and knowledge.(Wolf 1982, p.75)

Industrial Versus Nonindustrial Economy

(Capitalist Economy)-mode of productionmoney buys labor power, and there is a social

gap between the people(bosses and workers)
involved in the production process.
Nonindustrial Economy- labor is not usually
bought but is given as a social obligation.

MEANS OF PRODUCTION
Land
Labor
Capital
Technology

POLITICAL SYSTEM
What is The Political?
Anthropological studies- revealed substantial

variation in power(formal and informal),

authority, and legal systems in different
societies and communities.
POWER- is the ability to exercise ones will
over others; AUTHORITY- is the socially
approved use of power.)

Political Organization
sometimes just an aspect of social

organization
Morton Fried- comprises those portions of
social organization that specifically relate to
the individuals or groups that manage the
affairs of public policy or seek to control the
appointment or activities of those individuals
or groups.
-this definition certainly fits contemporary North
America.

But...
the definition of Morton is less applicable to non-

states, where it was difficult to detect any public

policy.
Socio political Organizationsin discussing

the regulation or management of interrelations

among groups and their representatives.
In general sense- regulation is the process that
ensures the variables stay within their normal
ranges, corrects deviations from the norm, and
thus maintaining s systems integrity.

TYPES AND TRENDS

ELMAN SERVICE (decades ago)
Four types/levels of Political Organization:
band, tribe, chiefdom, and state

Today, none of these political entities

can be studied as a self-contained

form of political organization, since all
exist within nation-states and are
subject to state control.

BAND
refers to a small kin-based group(all the

members are related to each other by kinship

or marriage ties) fund among foragers.
TRIBES
Had economies based on non-intensive food

production( horticulture and pastoralism).

Living in villages and organized into kin
groups based on common decent(clans and
lineages), tribes lacked a formal government
and had no reliable means of enforcing
political decisions.

CHIEFDOM
refers to a form of sociopolitical organiztion

intermediate between the tribe and the state.

Social relations were based mainly on kinship,
marriage, descent, age, generation, and
gender- just as they were in bands and tribe.
Although chiefdoms were kin-based, they
featured differential access to resources(some
people had more wealth, prestige, and power
than others) and a permanent political
structure.
STATE
is a form of sociopolitical organization based
on a formal government structure and
socioeconomic stratification.

BANDS

FORAGING BANDS
-Modern Foragers- should not be seen as
representatives of Stone Age peoples.
live in nation-states and interlinked world.
Example: the pygmies of Congo have shared a
social world with their neighbors who are
cultivators. They exchange forest
products(honey and meat) for crops(bananas
and manioc).
Contemporary Hunters- Gatherers- most of
them rely on governments and on missionaries
for at least part of what they consume.

E-N-D