1

The Neurons, synapses

and whole animal
integration

Introduction

The nervous system is the master controlling

and communicating system of the body

It is responsible for all behavior

Along with it, the endocrine system it is

responsible for regulating and maintaining
body homeostasis

Cells of the nervous system communicate by

means of electrical signals

Nervous System Functions

The nervous system has three overlapping functions

Gathering of sensory input

Integration or interpretation of sensory input
Causation of a response or motor output

Introduction

Sensory input

Integration

The nervous system has millions of sensory receptors

to monitor both internal and external change
It processes and interprets the sensory input and
makes decisions about what should be done at each
moment

Motor output

Causes a response by activating effector organs

(muscles and glands)

Organization of the Nervous System

Organization

The nervous system is divided into two parts

The central nervous system

Brain

and spinal cord

Integrative

and control centers

The peripheral nervous system

Spinal

and cranial nerves

Communication

lines/cables between
the CNS and the rest of the body

Organization

Basic

divisions of
the nervous system
Central

Nervous
Systems

Peripheral

System

Nervous

Organization

The peripheral nervous system has two

fundamental subdivisions
Sensory (afferent) division
Somatic and visceral sensory nerve fibers
Consists of nerve fibers carrying impulses
to the central nervous system
Motor (efferent) division
Motor nerve fibers
Conducts impulses from the CNS to
effectors
(glands and muscles)

Organization

10

Organization

The motor division of the peripheral nervous system

has two main subdivisions
The somatic nervous system
Voluntary (somatic motor)
Conducts impulses from the CNS to skeletal muscle
Branchial motor
Motor innervation of pharyngeal arch muscles
The autonomic nervous system (ANS)
Involuntary
Conducts impulses from the CNS to cardiac
muscles, smooth muscles, and glands

11

Organization

12

Innervation of Visceral Organs

13

Organization

The autonomic nervous system has two principal subdivisions

Sympathetic division
Mobilizes body systems during emergency situations
Parasympathetic division
Conserves energy
Promotes non-emergency functions

The two subdivisions bring about opposite effects on the

same visceral organs

What one subdivision stimulates, the other inhibits

Peripheral Nervous System

14

Visceral

organs are served by motor fibers

of the autonomic nervous system and by
visceral sensory fibers
The

limbs and body wall are served by

motor fibers of the somatic nervous system
and by sensory somatic sensory fibers

Histology of the Nervous

Tissue

15

Nervous tissue is highly cellular

Less that 20% of the CNS is extracellular space

Cells are densely packed and tightly intertwined

Nervous tissue is made up of two cell types

Neurons
Excitable
About

more than 100M nerve cells, assisted by glial cells

Support cells
Smaller

neurons

cells that transmit electrical signals

cells that surround and wrap the delicate

These same cells are found within CNS and PNS

Neuroglia (Supporting Cells)

16

All neurons associate closely with non-nervous

support cells of which there are 6 types
Support cells of the CNS
Astrocytes
Microglial
Ependymal
Oligodendrocytes
Support cells of the PNS
Schwann cells
Satellite cells

NeuroGlial cells

Support

Protect

Participate in neural activity

Nutrition

defense

17

Supporting Cells

18

While each support cell has a unique specific

function, in general these cells provide a
supportive scaffolding for neurons

In addition, they all cover nonsynaptic parts of

the neurons thereby insulating the neurons
and keeping the electrical activities of
adjacent neurons from interfering with each
other

Schwann Cells

Surround

and form myelin sheaths

around the larger nerve fibers in PNS
Similar to the oligodendrocytes of CNS
Schwann cells are vital to peripheral
nerve fiber regeneration

19

20

Neurons

Neurons are the structural units of

the nervous system

Neurons are highly specialized cells

that conduct messages in the form of
nerve impulses from one part of the
body to another

21

Neuron Characteristics

Extreme longevity

Live and function optimally for a lifetime

Amitotic

As neurons assume their role in the nervous

system they lose their ability to divide

Neurons cannot be replaced if destroyed

High metabolic rate

Require continuous and abundant supplies of

oxygen and glucose

Homeostatic deviations often first appear in

nervous tissue which has specific needs

22

Neurons

The plasma membrane of neurons is the site of

electrical signaling, and it plays a crucial role
in most cell to cell interaction
Most neurons have three functional
components in common
A receptive component
A conducting component
A secretion or output component
Each component is associated with a particular
region of a neurons anatomy

23

Neuron structure

Typically large, complex cells, they all have the

following structures
Cell body
Nuclei
Nissl bodies
Neurofibrils
Axon hillock
Cell processes
Dendrites
Axon
Myelin sheath or neurilemma

Neuron structure
Cell

Body

Nuclei
Nissl bodies
Neurofibrils
Axon hillock

Neuron

Processes

Dendrites
Axons
Myelin sheaths
Axon terminals

24

Neuron structure
The

cell body consists

of a large, spherical
nucleus with a
prominent nucleolus
surrounded by
cytoplasm
The

cell ranges from 5

to 140m in diameter
The

cell body is the

biosynthetic center of
the neuron

25

Neuron structure

The cell body contains

the usual organelles
with the exception of
centrioles (not needed
in amitotic cells)

The rough endoplasmic

reticulum or Nissl
bodies is the protein
and membrane making
machinery of the cell

The cell body is the

focal point for neuron
growth in development

26

27

Neuron structure
Neurofibrils

are

bundles of
intermediate
filaments
(neurofilaments)
that run in a
network between
the Nissl bodies
Neurofibrils keep
the cell from being
pulled apart when it
is subjected to
tensile stresses

Neuron structure

In

most neurons,
the plasma
membrane of the
cell body acts as a
receptive surface
that receives
signals from other
neurons

28

29

Neuron Cell Bodies

Most neuron cell bodies are located

with the CNS where they are
protected by the bones of the skull
and vertebral column

Aggregates of cell bodies in the CNS

are called nuclei

The relatively rare collection of cell

bodies in the PNS are called ganglia

Neuron
Processes
Cytoplasmic

extension called
processes extend
from the cell body
of all neurons
The CNS contain
both neuron cell
bodies and their
processes
The PNS consists
chiefly of
processes

Motor
30
neuron

Neuron
Processes
Bundles

of
neuron processes
in the CNS are
called tracts
Bundles

of
neuron processes
in the PNS are
called nerves

Motor
31
neuron

32

Dendrites

Dendrites are short, tapering diffusely

branching extensions

Motor neurons have hundreds of dendrites

clustering close to the cell body

Dendrites are receptive sites and provide an

enormous surface area for the reception of
signals

In many areas of the brain the finer dendrites

are highly specialized for information collection

Dendrites

Dendritic

spines
represent areas of
close contact with
other neurons
Dendrites convey
information toward the
cell body
These electrical
signals are not nerve
impulses but are short
distance signals called
graded potentials

33

Axons
Each

neuron has a
single axon
The axon arises from
the cone shaped axon
hillock
It narrows to form a
slender process that
stays uniform in
diameter the rest of its
length
Length varies; short
or absent to 3 feet in
length

34

Axons
Each

axon is
called a nerve
fiber
Axons

are

impulse
generators and
conductors that
transmit nerve
impulses away
from the cell body

35

Axons

Nissl

bodies and the

Golgi apparatus are
absent from the axon
and the axon hillock
The axons also lack
ribosomes and all
organelles involved in
protein synthesis so
they must receive
their proteins from
the cell body

36

Axons
Neurofilaments,

actin microfilaments,
and microtubules are
especially evident in
axons, where they
provide structural
strength

37

Axons
Neurofilaments

are
cytoskeleton elements
that also aid in the
transport of substances
to and from the cell
body as the axonal
cytoplasm is continually
recycled and renewed
This movement of
substances along axons
is called axonal
transport

38

Axons

Axons

branch less
extensively that
dendrites
Each neuron has only
one axon but may
possess a collateral
branch
All axons branches
profusely at its terminal
end to form more than
10,000 telodendria or
terminal branches

39

Axons

The axon terminals

contact other neurons
to form specialized
cell junctions called
synapses
A nerve impulse is
conducted along the
axon to the axon
terminals where it
causes a release of
chemicals called
neurotransmitters

40

41

Axons

Neurotransmitters are release into the

extracellular space called a synaptic cleft

The neurotransmitters excite or inhibit the

neurons with which axon is in close contact

Because each neuron typically receives signals

from and sends to other neurons, it carries on
conversations with many different neurons at
the same time

Each neuron has at least 1000

interconnections with other neurons

42

Axons

Axon diameter varies considerably

among the different neurons of the
body

Axons with larger diameters conduct

impulses faster than those of smaller
diameters because of the basic laws of
physics: The resistance to the passage
of an electrical current decreases as
the diameter of any cable increases

43

Classification of Neurons

Neurons can be classified structurally or

functionally

Both classifications are described in the text

According to the structural classification system

there are three types of neurons;
Multipolar
Bipolar
Pseudounipolar

Structural
Classification
Multipolar

- many processes
extend from cell body, all
dendrites except one axon
Bipolar - Two processes
extend from cell, one a fused
dendrite, the other an axon
Pseudounipolar - One process
that branches into two,
extending from the cell body to
the peripheral ending and the
other to the central nervous
system
ex. Those found in the spinal ganglia the
sensory ganglia located in the dorsal
roots of the spinal nerves) and cranial

44

Multipolar Neurons
Multipolar

neurons
have more than two
processes
Most common
type in humans
Major neuron of
the CNS
Most have many
dendrites and one
axon, some neurons
lack an axon

45

46

Bipolar Neurons
Bipolar

neurons are rare

in the human body
Found only in special
sense organs where they
function as receptor cells
Examples include those
found in the retina of the
eye, inner ear, and in the
olfactory mucosa
They are primarily
sensory neurons

47

Unipolar

neurons have a
single process that emerges
from the cell body
The central process (axon) is
more proximal to the CNS and
the peripheral is closer to the
PNS
Unipolar neurons are chiefly
found in the ganglia of the
peripheral nervous system
Function as sensory neurons

48

Functional Classification

The functional classification scheme

groups neurons according to the
direction in which the nerve impulse
travels relative to the CNS

Based on this criterion there are three

neurons

Sensory neurons

Motor neurons

Interneurons

49

Functional Classification

Sensory
Neurons
Neurons that
transmit impulses
from sensory
receptors in the skin
or internal organs
toward or into the
CNS are called
sensory or afferent
neurons
Virtually all primary
sensory neurons of
the body are

50

Sensory Neurons

51

Sensory neurons have their ganglia outside of

the CNS

The single (unipolar) process is divided into the

central process and the peripherial process

52

Sensory Neuron

The central process is clearly an axon because

it carries a nerve impulse and carries that
impulse away from the cell body which meet
the criteria which define an axon
The peripheral by contrast carries nerve
impulses toward the cell body which suggests
that it is a dendrite
However, the basic convention is that the
central process and the peripheral process are
parts of a unipolar neuron

Motor Neurons

Neurons

that carry
impulses away from the
CNS to effector organs
(muscles and glands)
are called motor or
efferent neurons
Upper motor neurons
are in the brain
Lower motor neurons
are in PNS

53

Motor Neurons

Motor

54

neurons are multipolar and their cell

bodies are located in the CNS (except autonomic)
Motor neurons form junctions with effector cells,
signaling muscle to contract or glands to secrete

55

These

neurons lie between the motor and

sensory neurons
These

neurons are found in pathways where

integration occurs
Confined
Make

to CNS

up 99% of the neurons of the body

and are the principle neuron of the CNS

Interneuron Neurons

Almost

all interneurons are multipolar

Interneurons

show great diversity in the

size and branching patterns of their
processes

56

Interneurons

The

Pyramidal
cell is the large
neuron found in
the primary motor
cortex of the
cerebrum
The

Purkinje cell
from the
cerebellum

57

Interneurons

Stellate

cells of the cerebellum

58

Synapses

The

59

site at which neurons communicate

is called a synapse, a cell junction that
mediates the transfer of information from
one neuron to the next

Synapses

Because

60

signals pass across most

synapses in one direction only, synapses
determine the direction of information
flow throughout the nervous system

Synapses

The

61

neuron the conducts impulses

toward a synapse is called the presynaptic
neuron

Synapses

The

62

neuron that conducts impulses away

from the synapse is called the
postsynaptic neuron

63

Synapses

Most neurons function as presynaptic

(information sending) and
postsynaptic (information receiving
neurons

In essence they get information from

some neurons and dispatch it to
others

Synapses

64

Most

synapses occur between the axon

terminals of one neuron and the dendrites
of another axons
These

are called axodendritic synapses

Synapses

Less

65

common, and far less understood,

are synapses between two axons
(axoaxonic), between two dendrites
(dendrodendritic) or between a dendrite
and a cell body (dendosomatic)

Synapses
Structurally

synapses are
elaborate cell
junctions
At

the typical
axodendritic
synapse the
presynaptic axon
terminal contain
synaptic vesicles

66

Synapses
Synaptic

vesicles are
membrane bound
sacs filled with
molecular
neurotransmitters
These

molecules
transmit signals
across the
synapse

67

Synapses

Mitochondria

are
abundant in the
axon terminal as
the secretion of
neurotransmitters
requires a great
deal of energy

68

Synapses
At

the synapse, the

plasma membranes of
the two neurons are
separated by a
synaptic cleft
On the under
surfaces of the
opposing cell
membranes are dense
materials; the pre- and
post- synaptic
densities

69

70

Synapses

When an impulse travels along the

axon of the presynaptic neuron, it
signals the synaptic vesicles to fuse
with the presynaptic membrane at the
presynaptic density

The released neurotransmitter

molecules diffuse across the synaptic
cleft and bind to the postsynaptic
membrane at the post synaptic density

71

Synapse

The binding of the two membranes

changes the membrane charge on
the postsynaptic neuron, influencing
the generation of a nerve impulse or
action potential in that neuron

72

Signals Carried by Neurons

In review, plasma membranes of

neurons conduct electrical signals
and that synapses relay the signals
from neuron to neuron

Signals Carried by Neurons

In

73

a resting (unstimulated) neuron, the

membrane is polarized which means that
the inner cytoplasmic side is negatively
charged with respect to its outer,
extracellular side

Signals Carried by Neurons

74

When a neuron is stimulated the permeability

of the plasma membrane changes at the site
of the stimulus, allowing positive ions to rush
in.

As a result, the inner face of the membrane

becomes less negative or depolarized

Signals Carried by Neurons

Any

75

part of the neuron depolarizes if

stimulated, but at the axon alone this can
result in the triggering of a nerve impulse
or action potential

76

Signals Carried by Neurons

When a nerve impulse or action

potential develops the membrane is
not only depolarized , but its polarity
is completely reversed so it becomes
negative externally and positive
internally

Signals Carried by Neurons

Once

77

begun, the nerve impulse travels

rapidly down the entire length of the axon
without decreasing in strength

Signals Carried by Neurons

After

the impulse has passed the

membrane repolarizes itself

78

79

Graded Potential

In humans, natural stimuli are not applied

directly to axons, but to dendrites and the cell
body which constitute the receptive zone of the
neuron

When the membrane of this receptive zone is

stimulated it does not undergo a polarity
reversal

Instead it undergoes a local depolarization in

which the inner surface of the membrane
merely becomes less negative

80

Graded Potential

This local depolarization is called a graded

potential which spreads from the receptive zone to
the axon hillock (trigger zone) decreasing in
strength as it travels

If this depolarizing signal is strong enough when it

reaches the initial segment of the axon, it acts as
the trigger that initiates an action potential in the
axon

Signals from the receptive zone determine if the

axon will fire an impulse

81

Synaptic Potential

Most neurons in the body do not

receive stimuli directly from the
environment but are stimulated only
by signals received at synapses from
other neurons

Synaptic input influences impulse

generation through either excitatory
or inhibitory synapses

82

Synaptic Potential

In excitatory synapses,
neurotransmitters released by
presynaptic neurons alter the
permeability of the postsysnaptic
membrane to certain ions, this
depolarizes the postsynapatic
membrane and drives the
postsynaptic neuron toward impulse
generation

83

Synaptic Potential

Inhibitory synapses cause the external

surface of the postsynaptic membrane to
become even more positive, thereby
reducing the ability of the postsynaptic
neuron to generate an action potential

Thousands of excitatory and inhibitory

synapses act on every neuron,
competing to determine whether or not
that neuron will generate an impulse

84

Supporting Cells

All neurons associate closely with non-nervous

support cells of which there are 6 types
Support cells of the CNS
Astrocytes
Microglial
Ependymal
Oligodendrocyte
Support cells of the PNS
Schwann cells
Satellite cells

85

Supporting Cells

While each support cell has a unique specific

function, in general these cells provide a
supportive scaffolding for neurons

In addition, they all cover nonsynaptic parts of

the neurons thereby insulating the neurons
and keeping the electrical activities of
adjacent neurons from interfering with each
other

86

Clinical Insight

The importance of support cells insulating

nerve fibers is illustrated in the disorder
called tic douloureux (doo loo-roo)

In this condition the support cells around

the sensory nerve fibers of the trigeminal
nerve degenerate and are lost

Impulses that carry touch sensations

proceed to influence and stimulate the
uninsulated pain fibers in the same nerve

87

Supporting Cells in the CNS

The supporting cells of the CNS are collectively

called neuroglia or simply, glial cells

Neuroglia usually refer to the CNS but some

authors include the PNS

88

Supporting Cells in the CNS

Like neurons, glial cells have branching

processes and a central cell body

Neuroglia can be distinguished from

neurons by their much smaller size and
darker staining nuclei

They outnumber neurons in the CNS by

a ratio of 10 to 1

Make up half of the mass of the brain

Astrocytes

Star shaped
Most abundant type
of glial cell
Radiating projections
cling to neurons and
capillaries, bracing
the neurons to their
blood supply
Astrocytes play a role
in exchanges of ions
between capillaries
and neurons

89

Astrocytes

Astrocytes take up and

release ions to control
the environment around
neurons
Concentrations of ions
must be kept within
narrow limits for nerve
impulses to be
generated & conducted
Astrocytes recapture
and recycle potassium
ions and released
neuro- transmitters

90

91

Astrocytes

Astrocytes contact both the neuron

and the capillary in order to sense
when the neuron are highly active
and releasing large amounts of
neurotransmitters (glutamate)

Astrocytes then extract blood sugar

from the capillaries they contact to
obtain the energy they need to fuel
the process of glutamate uptake

Microglial

Smallest

and least
abundant type of
neuroglial cell
The ovid cells have
relatively long
thorny processes
Their branches
touch nearby
neurons to monitor
health of the neuron

92

Microglial

These

are small
ovid cells with
relatively long
thorny processes
Microglial

derive
from blood cells and
migrate to the CNS
during embryonic
and fetal
development

93

Microglial

These

cells are
phagocytes, the
marcophages of the
CNS
Microglial

move to
and then engulf
microorganisms and
injured or dead
neurons

94

Microglial

When invading microorganisms are present

or damaged neurons
have died, the microglial transforms into a
special type of macrophage that protects the
CNS by phagocytizing
the microorganisms or
neuronal debris
Important because cells
of the immune system
can enter CNS

95

Ependymal

Range in shape from

squamous to columnar
and many are ciliated
Line the central cavities
of the brain and spinal
cord
Form a fairly permeable
barrier between
cerebrospinal fluid of
those cavities and the
cells of the CNS
Beating cilia circulates
cerebrospinal fluid

96

Oligodendrocytes

Fewer

branches
than astrocytes
Cells wrap their
cytoplasmic
extensions tightly
around the thicker
neurons in the CNS
Produce insulating
coverings called
myelin sheaths

97

98

Supporting Cells of the PNS

There are two supporting cells in the

PNS
Satellite

cells

Schwann

cells

These cells are similar in type and

differ mainly in location

Satellite Cells

Somewhat

99

flattened satellite cells

surround cell bodies within ganglia
Thought to play some role in controlling
the chemical environment of neurons
with which they are associated, but
function is largely unknown

Schwann Cells

Surround

and form myelin sheaths

around the larger nerve fibers in PNS
Similar to the oligodendrocytes of CNS
Schwann cells are vital to peripheral
nerve fiber regeneration

100

101

Neurons

Neurons are the structural units of

the nervous system

Neurons are highly specialized cells

that conduct messages in the form of
nerve impulses from one part of the
body to another

Myelin Sheaths

102

Myelin

sheaths are segmented

structures, each composed of the
lipoprotein myelin
The

sheaths surround the thicker axons

of the body

Myelin Sheaths

Myelin

103

sheaths form an insulating layer

that

Prevents the leakage of electrical current from the axon

Increases the speed of impulse conduction

Makes impulse propagation more energy efficient

Myelin
Sheath
Myelin increases
the speed of
transmission of
nerve impulses
Myelinated axons
transmit nerve
impulses rapidly;
150
meters/second
Unmyelinated
axons transmit
quite slowly; 1
meter/second

104

Myelin Sheaths

Each

105

segment of myelin consists of the

plasma membrane of the supporting cell
rolled in concentric layers around the
axon

Myelin Sheaths - PNS

106

The

myelin sheaths in the PNS are

formed by Schwann cells
Myelin

develops during the fetal period

and the first year or so of postnatal life

Myelin Sheaths - PNS

In

forming the cells

indent to receive the
axon and then wrap
themselves around the
axon repeatedly in a
jellyroll fashion
Initially loose, the
wrapping eventually
squeeze the cytoplasm
outward between cell
membrane layers

107

108

Myelin
Sheaths - PNS
The

nucleus
and most of the
cytoplasm end
up just external
to the myelin
layers

CNS Axons
Oligodendrocytes

form the
CNS myelin sheaths
In

contrast to Schwann
cells, oligodendrocytes can
form the sheaths of as many
as 60 processes at one time
Nodes

are spaced more

widely than in PNS
Axons can be myelinated
or unmyelinated

109

110

CNS Axons

Regions of the brain containing dense

collections of myelinated fibers are
referred to as white matter and are
primarily fiber tracts

Gray matter contains mostly nerve

cell bodies and unmyelinated fibers

Transmission of Signals:

111

Define some important terms such as:

Membrane potential
Resting potential
Action potential
Gated channels

Describe the mechanism of nerve impulse propagation.

Describe the mechanism of synaptic transmission.

112

Contn.

Membrane potential voltage

difference across PM

Excitable cells cells that can change

membrane potential (nerve, muscle)

Resting potential the unexcited

state of excitable cells

Resting membrane potential MP of a

neuron that is not transmitting signals

Resting membrane
potential, Contn.

113

In all neurons, the resting membrane potential

depends on the ionic gradients that exists across PM

In mammals, the ECF has Na+ concentration of 140150mM and K+ of 4 5mM

114

How Do Neurons Operate?

Neuron

at Rest Resting Potential

Occurs when the neuron is at rest.

A condition where the outside of the membrane is positively (+)

charged compared to the inside which is negatively(-) charged.

Neuron is said to be polarized.

Neuron has a voltage difference of -70 mV (-90mV)

How is resting potential

maintained?

IonDistribution

115

116

How is resting potential maintained?

At

rest, the sodium gates are closed.

Membrane

is 50 times more permeable to K+ ions

causing them to leak out.
This

causes outside of membrane to have an

abundance of + charges compared to inside. The
inside of the membrane is negative compared to
the outside. This is helped by the (-) proteins etc.
The

sodium-potassium pump pulls 2 K+ ions in

for 3 Na+ ions sent out. This further creates a
charge difference!!

117

Action Potential

The mechanism by which neurons send

impulses. They are comprised of
electrical signals generated at the soma
and moving along the axon toward the
end opposite the soma (motor neurons)
Action potentials occur in two stages:

Depolarization

Repolarization

Graded potentials
(depends on strength of
stimulus)

118

Hyperpolarization (outflow of K+); increase the

electrical gradient; cells becomes more
negative

Depolarization ( inflow of Na+); reduction in

electrical gradient; cell becomes less negative

Depolarization in an action potential

119

When

the neuron is excited past its Threshold the following

events occur:

Sodium ions (Na+) rush into the axon.

This neutralizes the negative ions inside.

The inside of the axon becomes temporarily (+) while the

outside becomes temporarily (-). The reversal of charge
is known as depolarization

Nearby Sodium (Na+) channels open to continue the

depolarization.

Potassium (K+) channels are still close

120

Repolarization

121

This

is the restoring of the (+) charge on the outside of the

axon and (-) on the inside.

Potassium gates open and potassium floods out.

This

generates positive charge on the outside of

membrane.

Sodium Channels Close (no + charges can get inside)

The Sodium/Potassium pump rapidly moves Sodium out

of the cell.
Further

creates the (+) charge outside with a (-)

charge inside.

122

Actionpotentials
Whencompleted,Na/Kpumpsrestorebalance
oftheions
Takesplaceonaverysmallpartofmembrane
occurrenceisrapid

Actionpotentialsareveryrapid
Inactivationoccursuntilmembranesare
repolarized
Strongerstimulistimulatemoreandmoreaxons
(moreactionpotentialsarestimulated,but
theiramplitudedoesnotchange)

127

Refractory Period

Brief period of time between the

triggering of an impulse and when it
is available for another.
NO

NEW action potentials can be

created during this time.

128

All or None Response

If an axon is stimulated above its threshold

it will trigger an impulse down its length.

The strength of the response is not

dependent upon the stimulus.

An axon cannot send a mild or strong

response. It either responds or does not!!!

The electrical
stimulus travels
down the axon.
The synaptic
vesicles release
transmitter
substances
across the
synaptic cleft.
Receptors in the
post-synaptic
cell membrane
receive the
transmitters and
respond
if a nerve cell,
by sending an
electrical action
potential down
the cell

1996 Norton Presentation Maker, W. W. Norton & Company

These synaptic connections are indirect:

1996 Norton Presentation Maker, W. W. Norton & Company

Here is the TEM of the synapse, corresponding with the

cartoon:

serotonin

GABA

acetyl
choline

1996 Norton Presentation Maker, W. W. Norton & Company

Differential responses to inputs is explained by different

transmitter substances being released

1996 Norton Presentation Maker, W. W. Norton & Company

A motor neuron synapses on several muscle fibers

(cells)

1996 Norton Presentation Maker, W. W. Norton & Company

135

136