Chemistry, The Central Science, 11th edition

Theodore L. Brown; H. Eugene LeMay, Jr.;

and Bruce E. Bursten

Chapter 7
Periodic Properties
of the Elements
John D. Bookstaver
St. Charles Community College
Cottleville, MO

Periodic
Properties
of the
Elements

Development of Periodic Table

Elements in the
same group
generally have
similar chemical
properties.
Physical properties
are not necessarily
similar, however.
Periodic
Properties
of the
Elements

Development of Periodic Table

Dmitri
Mendeleev and
Lothar Meyer
independently
came to the
same conclusion
about how
elements should
be grouped.
Periodic
Properties
of the
Elements

Development of Periodic Table

Mendeleev, for instance, predicted the

discovery of germanium (which he called ekasilicon) as an element with an atomic weight
between that of zinc and arsenic, but with
chemical properties similar to those of silicon.

Periodic
Properties
of the
Elements

Periodic Trends
In this chapter, we will rationalize
observed trends in
Sizes of atoms and ions.
Ionization energy.
Electron affinity.

Periodic
Properties
of the
Elements

Effective Nuclear Charge

In a many-electron
atom, electrons are
both attracted to the
nucleus and repelled
by other electrons.
The nuclear charge
that an electron
experiences depends
on both factors.
Periodic
Properties
of the
Elements

Effective Nuclear Charge

Chapter_07\Media
Gallery\Animations\EffectiveNuclearCharge\EffectiveNuclearCharge
.html

The effective nuclear

charge, Zeff, is found
this way:
Zeff = Z - S
where Z is the atomic
number and S is a
screening constant,
usually the number of
Periodic
inner electrons.
Properties
of the
Elements

What Is the Size of an Atom?

The bonding atomic
radius is defined as
one-half of the
distance between
covalently bonded
nuclei.

Periodic
Properties
of the
Elements

Sizes of Atoms
Bonding atomic
radius tends to
decrease from left to
right across a row
(due to increasing Zeff).

increase from top to

bottom of a column
(due to increasing value
of n).
Periodic
Properties
of the
Elements

Sizes of Ions
Ionic size depends
upon:
The nuclear
charge.
The number of
electrons.
The orbitals in
which electrons
reside.
Periodic
Properties
of the
Elements

Sizes of Ions
Cations are
smaller than their
parent atoms.
The outermost
electron is
removed and
repulsions
between electrons
are reduced.
Periodic
Properties
of the
Elements

Sizes of Ions
Anions are larger
than their parent
atoms.
Electrons are
added and
repulsions
between electrons
are increased.

Periodic
Properties
of the
Elements

Sizes of Ions
Ions increase in size
as you go down a
column.
This is due to
increasing value of n.

Periodic
Properties
of the
Elements

Sizes of Ions

In an isoelectronic series, ions have the same

number of electrons.
Ionic size decreases with an increasing
nuclear charge.
Periodic
Properties
of the
Elements

Sample Exercise 7.1 Bond Lengths in a Molecule

Naturalgasusedinhomeheatingandcookingisodorless.Becausenaturalgasleaksposethedangerof
explosionorsuffocation,varioussmellysubstancesareaddedtothegastoallowdetectionofaleak.One
suchsubstanceismethylmercaptan,CH3SH,whosestructureisshowninthemargin.UseFigure7.7to
predictthelengthsoftheCS,CH,SHandbondsinthismolecule.
Solution
AnalyzeandPlan:Wearegiventhreebondsandthelistofbondingatomicradii.Wewillassumethat
eachbondlengthisthesumoftheradiiofthetwoatomsinvolved.
Solve:UsingradiiforC,S,andHfromFigure7.7,wepredict

Check:Theexperimentallydeterminedbondlengthsinmethylmercaptan(takenfromthechemical
literature)areCS=1.82,CH=1.10,andSH=1.33.(Ingeneral,thelengthsofbonds
involvinghydrogenshowlargerdeviationsfromthevaluespredictedbythesumoftheatomicradiithando
thosebondsinvolvinglargeratoms.)
Comment:Noticethattheestimatedbondlengthsusingbondingatomicradiiareclose,butnotexact
matches,totheexperimentalbondlengths.Atomicradiimustbeusedwithsomecautioninestimatingbond
lengths.InChapter8wewillexaminesomeoftheaveragelengthsofcommontypesofbonds.
Practice Exercise
UsingFigure7.7,predictwhichwillbegreater,thePBrbondlengthinPBr 3ortheAsClbondlengthin
AsCl3.
Periodic
Answer:PBr
Properties
of the
Elements

Sample Exercise 7.2 Atomic Radii

Referringtoaperiodictable,arrange(asmuchaspossible)thefollowingatomsinorderofincreasingsize:
15P,16S,33As,34Se.(Atomicnumbersaregivenfortheelementstohelpyoulocatethemquicklyintheperiodic
table.)
Solution
AnalyzeandPlan:Wearegiventhechemicalsymbolsforfourelements.Wecanusetheirrelative
positionsintheperiodictableandthetwoperiodictrendsjustdescribedtopredicttherelativeorderoftheir
atomicradii.
Solve:NoticethatPandSareinthesamerowoftheperiodictable,withStotherightofP.Therefore,we
expecttheradiusofStobesmallerthanthatofP.(Radiidecreaseaswemovefromlefttoright.)Likewise,
theradiusofSeisexpectedtobesmallerthanthatofAs.WealsonoticethatAsisdirectlybelowPand
thatSeisdirectlybelowS.Weexpect,therefore,thattheradiusofAsisgreaterthanthatofPandthe
radiusofSeisgreaterthanthatofS.Fromtheseobservations,wepredictS<P,P<As,S<Se,andS<As.
WecanthereforeconcludethatShasthesmallestradiusofthefourelementsandthatAshasthelargest
radius.Usingjustthetwotrendsdescribedabove,wecannotdeterminewhetherPorSehasthelarger
radius.TogofromPtoSeintheperiodictable,wemustmovedown(radiustendstoincrease)andtothe
right(radiustendstodecrease).InFigure7.7weseethattheradiusofSe(1.16)isgreaterthanthatofP
(1.06).Ifyouexaminethefigurecarefully,youwilldiscoverthatforthesandpblockelementsthe
increasein
radiusmovingdownacolumntendstobethegreatereffect.Thereareexceptions,however.
Check:FromFigure7.7,wehaveS(1.02)<P(1.06)<Se(1.16)<As(1.19).
Comment:Notethatthetrendswehavejustdiscussedareforthesandpblockelements.Youwillseein
Figure7.7thatthetransitionelementsdonotshowaregulardecreaseuponmovingfromlefttorightacross
Periodic
arow.
Properties
of the
Elements

Sample Exercise 7.2 Atomic Radii

Practice Exercise
Arrangethefollowingatomsinorderofincreasingatomicradius: 11Na,4Be,12Mg.
Answer:Be<Mg<Na

Periodic
Properties
of the
Elements

Sample Exercise 7.3 Atomic and Ionic Radii

Arrangetheseatomsandionsinorderofdecreasingsize:Mg 2+,Ca2+,andCa.
Solution
Cationsaresmallerthantheirparentatoms,andsotheCa 2+ionissmallerthanthe
Caatom.BecauseCaisbelowMgingroup2Aoftheperiodictable,Ca 2+islarger
thanMg2+.Consequently,Ca>Ca2+>Mg2+.
Practice Exercise
Whichofthefollowingatomsandionsislargest:S2,S,O2?
Answer:S2

Periodic
Properties
of the
Elements

Sample Exercise 7.4 Ionic Radii in an Isoelectronic Series

ArrangetheionsK+,Cl,Ca2+,andS2inorderofdecreasingsize.
Solution
First,wenotethatthisisanisoelectronicseriesofions,withallionshaving18electrons.Insuchaseries,
sizedecreasesasthenuclearcharge(atomicnumber)oftheionincreases.Theatomicnumbersoftheions
areS(16),Cl(17),K(19),andCa(20).Thus,theionsdecreaseinsizeintheorderS 2>Cl>K+>Ca2+.
Practice Exercise
Whichofthefollowingionsislargest,Rb+,Sr2+,orY3+?
Answer:Rb+

Periodic
Properties
of the
Elements

Ionization Energy
The ionization energy is the amount of
energy required to remove an electron
from the ground state of a gaseous
atom or ion.
The first ionization energy is that energy
required to remove first electron.
The second ionization energy is that
energy required to remove second
electron, etc.

Periodic
Properties
of the
Elements

Ionization Energy
It requires more energy to remove each
successive electron.
When all valence electrons have been removed,
the ionization energy takes a quantum leap.

Periodic
Properties
of the
Elements

Trends in First Ionization Energies

As one goes down a
column, less energy
is required to remove
the first electron.
For atoms in the same
group, Zeff is
essentially the same,
but the valence
electrons are farther
from the nucleus. Periodic

Properties
of the
Elements

Trends in First Ionization Energies

Generally, as one
goes across a row, it
gets harder to
remove an electron.
As you go from left to
right, Zeff increases.

Periodic
Properties
of the
Elements

Trends in First Ionization Energies

However, there are
two apparent
discontinuities in this
trend.

Periodic
Properties
of the
Elements

Trends in First Ionization Energies

The first occurs
between Groups IIA
and IIIA.
In this case the
electron is removed
from a p-orbital rather
than an s-orbital.
The electron removed
is farther from nucleus.
There is also a small
amount of repulsion by
the s electrons.

Periodic
Properties
of the
Elements

Trends in First Ionization Energies

The second occurs
between Groups VA
and VIA.
The electron removed
comes from doubly
occupied orbital.
Repulsion from the
other electron in the
orbital aids in its
removal.

Periodic
Properties
of the
Elements

Sample Exercise 7.5 Trends in Ionization Energy

Threeelementsareindicatedintheperiodictableinthemargin.Basedontheirlocations,predicttheonewith
thelargestsecondionizationenergy.
Solution
AnalyzeandPlan:Thelocationsoftheelementsintheperiodictableallowusto
predicttheelectronconfigurations.Thegreatestionizationenergiesinvolveremoval
ofcoreelectrons.Thus,weshouldlookfirstforanelementwithonlyoneelectronin
theoutermostoccupiedshell.
Solve:Theelementingroup1A(Na),indicatedbytheredbox,hasonlyonevalence
electron.Thesecondionizationenergyofthiselementisassociated,therefore,with
theremovalofacoreelectron.Theotherelementsindicated,S(greenbox)andCa
(bluebox),havetwoormorevalenceelectrons.Thus,Nashouldhavethelargestsecond
ionizationenergy.
Check:Ifweconsultachemistryhandbook,wefindthefollowingvaluesforthesecondionization
energies(I2)oftherespectiveelements:Ca(1,145kJ/mol)<S(2,252kJ/mol)<Na(4,562kJ/mol).
Practice Exercise
Whichwillhavethegreaterthirdionizationenergy,CaorS?
Answer:Ca

Periodic
Properties
of the
Elements

Sample Exercise 7.6 Periodic Trends in Ionization Energy

Referringtoaperiodictable,arrangethefollowingatomsinorderofincreasingfirstionizationenergy:Ne,
Na,P,Ar,K.
Solution
AnalyzeandPlan:Wearegiventhechemicalsymbolsforfiveelements.Torankthemaccordingto
increasingfirstionizationenergy,weneedtolocateeachelementintheperiodictable.Wecanthenuse
theirrelativepositionsandthetrendsinfirstionizationenergiestopredicttheirorderNa<P<Ar.
Solve:Ionizationenergyincreasesaswemovelefttorightacrossarow.Itdecreasesaswemovefromthe
topofagrouptothebottom.BecauseNa,P,andArareinthesamerowoftheperiodictable,weexpectI1
tovaryintheorderNa<P<Ar.
BecauseNeisaboveAringroup8A,weexpectNetohavethegreaterfirstionizationenergy:Ar<Ne.
Similarly,KisthealkalimetaldirectlybelowNaingroup1A,andsoweexpectI1forKtobelessthanthat
ofNa:K<Na.
Fromtheseobservations,weconcludethattheionizationenergiesfollowtheorder
K<Na<P<Ar<Ne
Check:ThevaluesshowninFigure7.12confirmthisprediction.
Practice Exercise
Whichhasthelowestfirstionizationenergy,B,Al,C,orSi?Whichhasthehighestfirstionizationenergy?
Answer:Allowest,Chighest

Periodic
Properties
of the
Elements

Sample Exercise 7.7 Electron Configurations of Ions

Writetheelectronconfigurationfor(a)Ca2+(b)Co3+,and(c)S2.
Solution
AnalyzeandPlan:Weareaskedtowriteelectronconfigurationsforthreeions.Todoso,wefirstwritethe
electronconfigurationoftheparentatom.Wethenremoveelectronstoformcationsoraddelectronsto
formanions.Electronsarefirstremovedfromtheorbitalshavingthehighestvalueofn.Theyareaddedto
theemptyorpartiallyfilledorbitalshavingthelowestvalueofn.
Solve:
(a)Calcium(atomicnumber20)hastheelectronconfiguration
Ca:[Ar]4s2
Toforma2+ion,thetwoouterelectronsmustberemoved,givinganionthatisisoelectronicwithAr:
Ca2+:[Ar]
(b)Cobalt(atomicnumber27)hastheelectronconfiguration
Co:[Ar]3d74s2
Toforma3+ion,threeelectronsmustberemoved.AsdiscussedinthetextprecedingthisSample
Exercise,the4selectronsareremovedbeforethe3delectrons.Consequently,theelectronconfigurationfor
Co3+is
Co3+:[Ar]3d6
(c)Sulfur(atomicnumber16)hastheelectronconfiguration
S:[Ne]3s23p4
Toforma2ion,twoelectronsmustbeadded.Thereisroomfortwoadditionalelectronsinthe3p
orbitals.Thus,theS2electronconfigurationis
S2:[Ne]3s23p6=[Ar]
Comment:Rememberthatmanyofthecommonionsofthesandpblockelements,suchasCa2+andS2,Periodic
havethesamenumberofelectronsastheclosestnoblegas.(Section2.7)
Properties
of the
Elements

Sample Exercise 7.7 Electron Configurations of Ions

Practice Exercise
Writetheelectronconfigurationfor(a)Ga3+,(b)Cr3+,and(c)Br.
Answer:(a)[Ar]3d10,(b)[Ar]3d3,(c)[Ar]3d104s24p6=[Kr]

Periodic
Properties
of the
Elements

Electron Affinity
Electron affinity is the energy change
accompanying the addition of an
electron to a gaseous atom:
Cl + e-

Cl-

Periodic
Properties
of the
Elements

Trends in Electron Affinity

In general, electron
affinity becomes
more exothermic as
you go from left to
right across a row.

Periodic
Properties
of the
Elements

Trends in Electron Affinity

There are
again,
however, two
discontinuities
in this trend.

Periodic
Properties
of the
Elements

Trends in Electron Affinity

The first occurs
between Groups IA
and IIA.
The added electron
must go in a p-orbital,
not an s-orbital.
The electron is farther
from nucleus and
feels repulsion from
the s-electrons.
Periodic
Properties
of the
Elements

Trends in Electron Affinity

The second occurs
between Groups IVA
and VA.
Group VA has no
empty orbitals.
The extra electron
must go into an
already occupied
orbital, creating
Periodic
repulsion.

Properties
of the
Elements

Properties of Metal, Nonmetals,

and Metalloids

Periodic
Properties
of the
Elements

Metals versus Nonmetals

Differences between metals and nonmetals

tend to revolve around these properties.

Periodic
Properties
of the
Elements

Metals versus Nonmetals

Metals tend to form cations.
Nonmetals tend to form anions.

Periodic
Properties
of the
Elements

Metals
They tend to be
lustrous, malleable,
ductile, and good
conductors of heat
and electricity.

Periodic
Properties
of the
Elements

Metals
Compounds formed
between metals and
nonmetals tend to
be ionic.
Metal oxides tend to
be basic.

Periodic
Properties
of the
Elements

Nonmetals
These are dull, brittle
substances that are
poor conductors of
heat and electricity.
They tend to gain
electrons in reactions
with metals to acquire
a noble gas
configuration.
Periodic
Properties
of the
Elements

Nonmetals
Substances
containing only
nonmetals are
molecular
compounds.
Most nonmetal
oxides are acidic.

Periodic
Properties
of the
Elements

Metalloids
These have some
characteristics of
metals and some of
nonmetals.
For instance, silicon
looks shiny, but is
brittle and fairly poor
conductor.
Periodic
Properties
of the
Elements

Sample Exercise 7.8 Metal Oxides

(a)Wouldyouexpectscandiumoxidetobeasolid,liquid,orgasatroomtemperature?(b)Writethe
balancedchemicalequationforthereactionofscandiumoxidewithnitricacid.
Solution
AnalyzeandPlan:Weareaskedaboutonephysicalpropertyofscandiumoxideitsstateatroom
temperatureandonechemicalpropertyhowitreactswithnitricacid.
Solve:
(a)Becausescandiumoxideistheoxideofametal,wewouldexpectittobeanionicsolid.Indeeditis,
withtheveryhighmeltingpointof2485C.
(b)Initscompounds,scandiumhasa3+charge,Sc 3+;theoxideionisO2.Consequently,theformulaof
scandiumoxideisSc2O3.Metaloxidestendtobebasicandthereforetoreactwithacidstoformasaltplus
water.Inthiscasethesaltisscandiumnitrate,Sc(NO3)3.Thebalancedchemicalequationis
Sc2O3(s)+6HNO3(aq)2Sc(NO3)3(aq)+3H2O(l)
Practice Exercise
Writethebalancedchemicalequationforthereactionbetweencopper(II)oxideandsulfuricacid.
Answer:CuO(s)+H2SO4(aq)CuSO4(aq)+H2O(l)

Periodic
Properties
of the
Elements

Sample Exercise 7.9 Nonmetal Oxides

Writethebalancedchemicalequationsforthereactionsofsolidseleniumdioxidewith(a)water,(b)aqueous
sodiumhydroxide.
Solution
AnalyzeandPlan:Wefirstnotethatselenium(Se)isanonmetal.Wethereforeneedtowritechemical
equationsforthereactionofanonmetaloxide,firstwithwaterandthenwithabase,NaOH.Nonmetal
oxidesareacidic,reactingwithwatertoformanacidandwithbasestoformasaltandwater.
Solve:
(a)SeleniumdioxideisSeO2.Itsreactionwithwaterislikethatofcarbondioxide(Equation7.14):
SeO2(s)+H2O(l)H2SeO3(aq)
(ItdoesnotmatterthatSeO2isasolidandCO2isagasunderambientconditions;thepointisthatbothare
watersolublenonmetaloxides.)
(b)ThereactionwithsodiumhydroxideislikethereactionsummarizedbyEquation7.16:
SeO2(s)+2NaOH(aq)Na2SeO3(aq)+H2O(l)
Practice Exercise
Writethebalancedchemicalequationforthereactionofsolidtetraphosphorushexoxidewithwater.
Answer:P4O6(s)+6H2O(l)4H3PO3(aq)
Periodic
Properties
of the
Elements

Group Trends

Periodic
Properties
of the
Elements

Alkali Metals
Alkali metals are
soft, metallic solids.
The name comes
from the Arabic word
for ashes.

Periodic
Properties
of the
Elements

Alkali Metals
They are found only in compounds in nature,
not in their elemental forms.
They have low densities and melting points.
They also have low ionization energies.

Periodic
Properties
of the
Elements

Alkali Metals
Chapter_07\Media
Gallery\Movies\Sodium
andPotassiuminWater\S
odiumandPotassiuminWa
ter.html

Their reactions with water are famously

exothermic.

Periodic
Properties
of the
Elements

Alkali Metals
Alkali metals (except Li) react with oxygen to
form peroxides.
K, Rb, and Cs also form superoxides:
K + O2

KO2
They produce bright colors when placed in a
flame.

Periodic
Properties
of the
Elements

Sample Exercise 7.10 Reactions of an Alkali Metal

Writeabalancedequationthatpredictsthereactionofcesiummetalwith(a)Cl2(g),(b)H2O(l),(c)H2(g).
Solution
AnalyzeandPlan:Cesiumisanalkalimetal(atomicnumber55).Wethereforeexpectthatitschemistry
willbedominatedbyoxidationofthemetaltoCs +ions.Further,werecognizethatCsisfardownthe
periodictable,whichmeansitwillbeamongthemostactiveofallmetalsandwillprobablyreactwithall
threeofthesubstanceslisted.
Solve:ThereactionbetweenCsandCl2isasimple
combinationreactionbetweentwoelements,
oneametalandtheotheranonmetal,
formingtheioniccompoundCsCl:
ByanalogytoEquations7.19and7.17,respectively,
wepredictthereactionsofcesiumwithwater
andhydrogentoproceedasfollows:
AllthreeofthesereactionsareredoxreactionswherecesiumformsaCs +ionintheproduct.Thechloride
(Cl),hydroxide(OH),andhydride(H)ionsareall1ions,whichmeansthefinalproductshave1:1
stoichiometrywithCs+.
Practice Exercise
Writeabalancedequationforthereactionbetweenpotassiummetalandelementalsulfur.
Answer:2K(s)+S(s)K2S(s)

Periodic
Properties
of the
Elements

Alkaline Earth Metals

Alkaline earth metals have higher densities

and melting points than alkali metals.
Their ionization energies are low, but not as
low as those of alkali metals.
Periodic
Properties
of the
Elements

Alkaline Earth Metals

Beryllium does not
react with water and
magnesium reacts
only with steam, but
the others react
readily with water.
Reactivity tends to
increase as you go
down the group.
Periodic
Properties
of the
Elements

Group 6A

Oxygen, sulfur, and selenium are nonmetals.

Tellurium is a metalloid.
The radioactive polonium is a metal.
Periodic
Properties
of the
Elements

Oxygen
There are two allotropes of
oxygen:
O2
O3, ozone

There can be three anions:

O2-, oxide
O22-, peroxide
O21-, superoxide

It tends to take electrons

from other elements
Periodic
(oxidation).

Properties
of the
Elements

Sulfur

Sulfur is a weaker
oxidizer than
oxygen.
The most stable
allotrope is S8, a
ringed molecule.

Periodic
Properties
of the
Elements

Group VIIA: Halogens

The halogens are prototypical nonmetals.

The name comes from the Greek words halos
and gennao: salt formers.
Periodic
Properties
of the
Elements

Group VIIA: Halogens

They have large, negative
electron affinities.
Therefore, they tend to
oxidize other elements
easily.

They react directly with

metals to form metal
halides.
Chlorine is added to water
supplies to serve as a
Periodic
disinfectant

Properties
of the
Elements

Group VIIIA: Noble Gases

The noble gases have astronomical ionization

energies.
Their electron affinities are positive.
Therefore, they are relatively unreactive.

They are found as monatomic gases.

Periodic
Properties
of the
Elements

Group VIIIA: Noble Gases

Xe forms three
compounds:
XeF2
XeF4 (at right)
XeF6

Kr forms only one stable

compound:
KrF2

The unstable HArF was

synthesized in 2000.

Periodic
Properties
of the
Elements

Sample Integrative Exercise Putting Concepts Together

Theelementbismuth(Bi,atomicnumber83)istheheaviestmemberofgroup5A.Asaltoftheelement,
bismuthsubsalicylate,istheactiveingredientinPeptoBismol,anoverthecountermedicationforgastric
distress.
(a)Thecovalentatomicradiiofthallium(Tl)andlead(Pb)are1.48and1.47,respectively.Usingthese
valuesandthoseinFigure7.7,predictthecovalentatomicradiusoftheelementbismuth(Bi).Explainyour
answer.
(b)Whataccountsforthegeneralincreaseinatomicradiusgoingdownthegroup5Aelements?
(c)Anothermajoruseofbismuthhasbeenasaningredientinlowmeltingmetalalloys,suchasthoseusedin
firesprinklersystemsandintypesetting.Theelementitselfisabrittlewhitecrystallinesolid.Howdothese
characteristicsfitwiththefactthatbismuthisinthesameperiodicgroupwithsuchnonmetallicelementsas
nitrogenandphosphorus?
(d)Bi2O3isabasicoxide.Writeabalancedchemicalequationforitsreactionwithdilutenitricacid.If6.77g
ofBi2O3isdissolvedindiluteacidicsolutiontomake0.500Lofsolution,whatisthemolarityofthesolution
ofBi3+ion?
(e)209Biistheheavieststableisotopeofanyelement.Howmanyprotonsandneutronsarepresentinthis
nucleus?
(f)ThedensityofBiat25Cis9.808g/cm3.HowmanyBiatomsarepresentinacubeoftheelementthatis
5.00cmoneachedge?Howmanymolesoftheelementarepresent?
Solution
(a)NotethatthereisagradualdecreaseinradiusoftheelementsinGroups3A5Aasweproceedacross
thefifthperiod,thatis,intheseriesInSnSb.Therefore,itisreasonabletoexpectadecreaseofabout
0.02aswemovefromPbtoBi,leadingtoanestimateof1.45.Thetabulatedvalueis1.46.
Periodic
Properties
of the
Elements

Sample Integrative Exercise Putting Concepts Together

Solution (continued)
(b)Thegeneralincreaseinradiuswithincreasingatomicnumberinthegroup5Aelementsoccursbecause
additionalshellsofelectronsarebeingadded,withcorrespondingincreasesinnuclearcharge.Thecore
electronsineachcaselargelyshieldtheoutermostelectronsfromthenucleus,sotheeffectivenuclear
chargedoesnotvarygreatlyaswegotohigheratomicnumbers.However,theprincipalquantumnumber,
n,oftheoutermostelectronssteadilyincreases,withacorrespondingincreaseinorbitalradius.
(c)Thecontrastbetweenthepropertiesofbismuthandthoseofnitrogenandphosphorusillustratesthe
generalrulethatthereisatrendtowardincreasedmetalliccharacteraswemovedowninagivengroup.
Bismuth,infact,isametal.Theincreasedmetalliccharacteroccursbecausetheoutermostelectronsare
morereadilylostinbonding,atrendthatisconsistentwithitslowerionizationenergy.
(d)FollowingtheproceduresdescribedinSection4.2forwritingmolecularandnetionicequations,we
havethefollowing:

Inthenetionicequation,nitricacidisastrongacidandBi(NO 3)3isasolublesalt,soweneedshowonly
thereactionofthesolidwiththehydrogenionformingtheBi 3+(aq)ionandwater.
Tocalculatetheconcentrationofthesolution,weproceedasfollows(Section4.5):

Periodic
Properties
of the
Elements

Sample Integrative Exercise Putting Concepts Together

Solution (continued)
(e)WecanproceedasinSection2.3.Bismuthiselement83;therearetherefore
83protonsinthenucleus.Becausetheatomicmassnumberis209,thereare
20983=126neutronsinthenucleus.
(f)WeproceedasinSections1.4and3.4:thevolumeofthecubeis(5.00) 3cm3=125cm3.Thenwehave

Periodic
Properties
of the
Elements