Calibration & Sensors, Actuators

By
Prof.B.Ashok

THE NEED FOR CALIBRATION

Instruments must be reliable

Technicians rely on instrument readings to
troubleshoot and evaluate systems
Improper conclusions can be drawn if
readings are inaccurate
Taking care of tools requires calibration
Voltage-measuring instruments must function
properly for safetys sake

CALIBRATION
Definition:
To
change
the
instruments output to correspond to
a standard reading
New electronic instruments with
digital
readout
features
stay
calibrated longer
Analog meters use a needle on the
meter face to indicate value readings
Follow manufacturers instructions
for the calibration of individual meters

TRAINING AND DOCUMENTATION

Ensure that all personnel involved with
calibration are properly trained
Training records must be maintained
Documentation standards must be
followed
Version control
Assure only current documents are
deployed

AUDITING

Periodic audits assure that

the calibration plan is being
followed
Provides an opportunity to
implement corrective action
Formal
audit
report
documents audit process

CALIBRATION MANAGEMENT TECHNICIAN

Responsible for responding to calibration

needs
Perform calibration procedures
Document calibration operations
Handle out-of-calibration conditions
Perform TQM tasks

1. Calibration process
The purpose of calibration is to ensure that the
measuring accuracy is known over the whole
measurement range under specified environmental
conditions for calibration.
Input
Input(whole
(whole
measuring
measuringrange)
range)

Environmental
Environmental
Conditions
Conditions
(Modifying
(ModifyingInputs)
Inputs)

Instrument
Instrumenttotobebe
calibrated
calibrated

Instrument
InstrumentOutput
Output

Instrument
Instrumentofof
Higher
HigherStandard
Standard

The
Theinput
inputvalue
value
with
known
with known
accuracy
accuracy

Standard
Standard
Instrument
Instrument

Ensure
Ensurethe
the
calibration
is
calibration isdone
done
under
the
specified
under the specified
environmental
environmental
conditions
conditions

Calibration of Instrument

Sensor Types
A. Based on power
requirement:
1. Active: require
external power, called
excitation signal, for the
operation
2. Passive: directly
generate electrical signal
in response to the
external stimulus
B. Based on sensor
placement:
1. Contact sensors
2. Non-contact

MEASUREMENT OF SPEED
An objects position is measured from a reference
point
To describe the position of an object, you can use
distance and direction
To calculate speed, you need to know both distance
and time
Objects that travel at different speeds move different
distances in the same amount of time
Speed can be calculated by dividing the distance an
object travels by the time it takes to cover the
distance
The formula for finding speed is

Speed = distance/time S=d/t

9

SENSORS USED FOR SPEED MEASUREMENT

Inductive
Speed
sensors
Hall speed sensor
Optical type.
Position
encoders ,etc.

MEASUREMENT OF FORCE
The fundamental operating principles of force,
acceleration, and torque instrumentation are closely
allied to the piezoelectric and strain gage devices
used to measure static and dynamic pressures.

FORCE SENSORS CONTD

Piezoelectric sensor produces a voltage when it is
"squeezed" by a force that is proportional to the force
applied.
Difference between these devices and static force
detection devices such as strain gages is that the
electrical signal generated by the crystal decays
rapidly after the application of force.
The high impedance electrical signal generated by
the piezoelectric crystal is converted to a low
impedance signal suitable for such an instrument as
a digital storage oscilloscope.

FORCE SENSORS CONTD...

Depending
on
the
application
requirements, dynamic force can be
measured as either compression, tensile, or
torque force.
Applications
may
include
the
measurement of spring or sliding friction
forces, chain tensions, clutch release forces.

TORQUE SENSORS

Torque is measured by either sensing the

actual shaft deflection caused by a twisting
force, or by detecting the effects of this
deflection.
The surface of a shaft under torque will
experience compression and tension, as shown
in Figure.

TORQUE SENSOR CONTD...

To measure torque, strain gage elements usually
are mounted in pairs on the shaft, one gauge
measuring the increase in length (in the direction
in which the surface is under tension), the other
measuring the decrease in length in the other
direction.

STRAIN GUAGES
Many types of force\torque sensors are
based on strain gage measurements.
The measurements can be directly related to
stress and force and may be used to measure
other
types
of
variables
including
displacement and acceleration

WHATS
A
STRAIN
GAUGE?
The electrical resistance of a
length of wire varies in direct
proportion to the change in any
strain applied to it. Thats the
principle upon which the strain
gauge works.

The most accurate way to

measure this change in resistance
is by using the Wheatstone bridge.
The majority of strain gauges are
foil types, available in a wide choice
of shapes and sizes to suit a variety
of applications.
They consist of a pattern of
resistive foil which is mounted on a
backing material.

STRAIN GAUGE CONFIGURATION

The strain gauge is

connected
into
a
Wheatstone
Bridge
circuit
with
a
combination
of
four
active
gauges(full
bridge),two gauges (half
bridge)
or,
less
commonly,
a
single
gauge (quarter bridge).

MEASUREMENT OF TORQUE
Torque is a measure of the
forces that causes an object to
rotate.
Reaction
torque
sensors
measure static and dynamic
torque with a stationary or nonrotating transducer.
Rotary torque sensors use rotary
transducers to measure torque.

TECHNOLOGY

Magneto elastic : A magneto elastic

torque
sensor detects changes in
permeability by measuring changes in its
own magnetic field.
Piezoelectric : A piezoelectric material is
compressed and generates a charge,
which is measured by a charge amplifier.
Strain gauge : To measure torque, strain
gauge elements usually are mounted in
pairs on the shaft, one gauge measuring
the increase in length the other
measuring the decrease in the other
direction.

FIGURES SHOWING TORQUE SENSORS

TORQUE MEASUREMENT

The need for torque measurements has led to

several methods of acquiring reliable data from
objects moving. A torque sensor, or transducer,
converts torque into an electrical signal.
The most common transducer is a strain gauge that
converts torque into a change in electrical
resistance.
The strain gauge is bonded to a beam or structural
member that deforms when a torque or force is
applied.

TORQUE MEASUREMENT CONTD..

Deflection induces a stress that
changes
its
resistance.
A
Wheatstone bridge converts the
resistance change into a calibrated
output signal.
The design of a reaction torque
cell seeks to eliminate side loading
(bending) and axial loading, and is
sensitive only to torque loading.
The sensors output is a function
of force and distance, and is usually
expressed in inch-pounds, footpounds or Newton-meters.

MEASUREMENT OF TEMPERATURE

Types
RTD (Resistance
Temperature Detector)
Thermistor
Thermocouple
Bimetallic Strip.

RTD, THE BASICS

How it works:
Utilizes the fact that
resistance of a metal
changes
with
temperature.
Make up:
Traditionally made up of
platinum, nickel, iron or
copper wound around an
insulator.
Temperature range:
From about -196C to
482C.

Thin Film RTD

RTD ADVANTAGES AND DISADVANTAGES

Advantages:
Stable
Very
accurate
Change in
resistance
is linear

Disadvantages:
Expensive
Current source
required
Small change
in resistance
Self heating
Less rugged
than
thermocouples.

THERMISTOR, THE BASICS OF

How it works:
Like the RTD a
thermistor
uses
the
fact
that
resistance of a
metal
changes
with temperature.
Make up:
Generally
made
up
of
semiconductor
materials
Temperature Range:
About
-45C
150C

Thermistor

THERMISTOR ADVANTAGES AND

DISADVANTAGES

Advantages:
Very sensitive
(has the largest
output change
from input
temperature)
Quick response
More accurate
than RTD and
Thermocouples

Disadvantages:
Output is a nonlinear function
Limited
temperature
range.
Require a current
source
Self heating
Fragile

THERMOCOUPLES

Seebeck effect
If two wires of dissimilar metals are joined at
both ends and one end is heated, current will
flow.
If the circuit is broken, there will be an open
circuit voltage across the wires.
Voltage is a function of temperature and metal
types

V T

For small DTs, the relationship with

temperature is linear
For larger DTs, non-linearities may occur.

THERMOCOUPLE, SOME MORE

BASICS
How it works:
Made up of two
different metals
joined at one end to
produce a small
voltage at a given
temperature.
Make up:
Made of up two
different metals. Ex:
A type J is made up
of Iron and
Constantan.
Temperature Range
Type J: 0C to 750C

A few Thermocouples

BIMETAL SENSORS
Two metal strips welded together
Each metal strip has different coefficient
of expansion
As they expand, the two strips bend. This
motion can then be used to:
move a dial
actuate a sensor (pressure sensor for
example)
rotate a potentiometer
close a switch

BIMETAL SENSORS (CONT.)

To extend motion, the bimetal strip is bent into a
coil. The dial rotates as the coil expands/contracts

MEASUREMENT OF LIGHT
Light sensors are
used in cameras,
infrared detectors,
and ambient
lighting applications
Sensor is
composed of
photoconductor
such as a
photoresistor,
photodiode, or
phototransistor

PHOTORESISTOR
S
Light sensitive variable
resistors.

Its resistance depends on the intensity of light incident upon it.

Under dark condition, resistance is quite high (M: called
dark resistance).
Under bright condition, resistance is lowered (few hundred
).
Response time:
When a photoresistor is exposed to light, it takes a few
milliseconds, before it lowers its resistance.
When a photoresistor experiences removal of light, it may
take a few seconds to return to its dark resistance.
Photoresisotrs exhibit a nonlinear characteristics for incident
optical illumination versus the resulting resistance.
104
R

103
102
101
10 10 10
1

10

Symbol

Pressure Measurement Methods

1.

Elastic pressure transducers

2.

Manometer method

3.

Pressure measurement by measuring

vacuum

4.

Electric pressure transducers

5.

Pressure measurement by balancing

forces produced on a known area by
a measured force

Elastic Pressure Transducers

1.

Bourdon tube pressure gauge

2.

Diaphragm pressure transducers

3.

Bellows
Uses flexible element as sensor. As
pressure changed ,the flexible element
moved, and this motion was used to
rotate a pointer in front of dial.

Bourdon Tube Pressure Gauge

Bourdon tubes are

generally are
of three types;
1. C-type
2. Helical type
3. Spiral type

37

Diaphragm and Bellows Pressure Gauge

Diaphragm are popular because they required

less space and the motion they produce is
sufficient for operating electronic transducers

Bellows

More sensitive than

bourdon type gauge.
Used to measure low
pressures
Brass,
phosphor
bronze,

stainless steel,
beryllium copper etc.

Electric Pressure Transducers

WHY ELECTRICAL PRESSURE TRANSDUCERS?

Transmission requirements for remote display
as electric signal transmission can be through
cable or cordless.
Electric signals give quicker responses and
high accuracy in digital measurements.
The linearity property of the electric signal
produced to pressure applied favors simplicity.
They can be used for extreme pressure
applications, i.e. high vacuum and pressure
measurements.
EPTs are immune to hysteresis, shock and

Electric Pressure Transducers

1.

Pressure sensing element such as a bellow , a

diaphragm or a bourdon tube

2.

Primary conversion element e.g. resistance or

voltage

3.

Secondary conversion element

Types of Electric Pressure Transducers

Strain gauge pressure

transducers
Capacitive pressure transducers
Potentiometer pressure
transducers
Resonant Wire pressure
transducers
Piezeoelectric pressure
transducers

Strain Gauge Pressure Transducer

A strain gauge is a passive type resistance pressure

transducer whose electrical resistance changes when
it is stretched or compressed

The wire filament is attached to a structure under

strain and the resistance in the strained wire is
measured

Strain Gauge Pressure Transducer

Construction and Working

Strain Gauge Pressure Transducer

Strain gauge pressure transducers are

used for narrow pressure span and for
differential pressure measurments
Available for pressure ranges as low as 3
inches of water to as high as 200,000 psig
Inaccuracy ranges from 0.1 % of span to
0.25 % of full scale

Capacitive Pressure Transducer

C=0 r A/d
Where,
C = the capacitance of a
capacitor in farad
A = area of each plate in m2
d = distance between two
plates in m
r= dielectric constant
0 = 8.854*10^-12 farad/m2
Thus, capacitance can be
varied by changing distance
between the plates, area of the
plate or value of the dielectric
medium between the plates.
Any change in these factors
cause change in capacitance.
In capacitive transducers, pressure is utilized to vary any of the above mentioned
factors which will cause change in capacitance and that is a measureable by any
suitable electric bridge circuit and is proportional to the pressure.

Potentiometer Pressure Transducer

The device consists of a precision potentiometer

whose wiper alarm is mechanically linked to bourdon
tube or bellow.
The movement of wiper alarm across the
potentiometer converts the mechanically detected
sensor deflection into a resistance measurement using
a Wheatstone bridge circuit.

Piezoelectric Pressure Transducer

When a pressure , force or acceleration is applied

to a quartz crystal , a charge is developed across
the crystal that is proportional to the force applied

MEASUREMENT OF FLOW

Flow measured
as a quantity or
rate of flow
In terms of
weight or flow

TYPES OF FLOW METERS

Head type meters

Rota meter (variable
area type)
Electromagnetic type
Mechanical type
Anemometer
Ultrasonic flow meter
Vortex flow meter

ELECTROMAGNETIC FLOW METER

Principle Faradays Law of electromagnetic

Induction
Ie, sped of flow measured in terms of potential
difference induced when liquid moves in a pipe
transverse to magnetic field

ULTRA SONIC TRANSDUCER

Sound travels in material medium

Propagation of sound is modulated by
characteristics of medium
High freq >20 K Hz can be beamed is used

Measurement of level
Level is measured at the position of the
interface between phases, where the
phases

are

immiscible

liquid/gas,
liquid/liquid

solid/gas,
and

or

after

reaching certain level, switch turns the

equipment ON & OFF. Level is simply a
measure of height.

Types
Direct
Indirect

Direct Level Measurement

Type
Direct methods employ physical properties such
as fluid motion and buoyancy, as well as optical,
thermal, and electrical properties.
Direct level measurement does not require
compensation for changes in level caused by
changes in temperature.
Direct level measurements show the actual level
of the interface.

In-Direct Level
Measurement Type

Indirect level measurement involves converting

measurements of some other quantity, such as
pressure to level by determining how much pressure
is exerted over a given area at a specific measuring
point, the height of the substance above that
measuring point can also be determined.

MEASUREMENT OF HUMIDITY
Humidity is defined as the water vapor content in
the air or other gases
Measured as
Absolute Humidity
Ratio of the mass of water vapor to the
volume of air or gas
Relative Humidity or RH
The ratio of the moisture content of air
compared to the saturated moisture level at
the same temperature or pressure
Dew Point
Temperature and pressure at which gas
begins to condense into liquids

57

HUMIDITY
SENSOR
TYPES
Capacitive RH sensor
Change in dielectric constant is directly
proportional to relative humidity in the
environment
Very low temperature effect
0.2-0.5 pF change in capacitance for 1%
RH change
Resistive Humidity Sensors
Measure the impedance change
Inverse exponential relationship to
humidity
Mostly used are conductive polymer, salt
etc.
Ceramic coated to avoid condensation
effect

58

Humidity Sensor Types

Thermal Conductivity Humidity Sensors
Measure absolute humidity
Calculate the difference between dry air and
air containing water vapor
One Thermistor sealed in dry nitrogen and
another exposed to environment
Difference in current proportional to humidity
MEMS-based Humidity sensor
Polyamide-coated cantilever beam
Provided with movable electrode
Absorption causes increase in beam mass
Deflection causes capacitance change
59

MEASUREMENT OF SOUND
A microphone is an acoustic to electric
transducer that converts sound into an electrical
signal.
Microphones capture sound waves with a thin,
flexible diaphragm. The vibrations of this
element are then converted by various methods
into an electrical signal that is an analog of the
original sound.
Most microphones in use today use
electromagnetic generation (dynamic
microphones), capacitance change (condenser
microphones) or piezo-electric generation to
produce the signal from mechanical vibration.

60

CONDENSER (OR CAPACITOR)

MICROPHONES
In a condenser microphone, the diaphragm acts as
one plate of a capacitor, and the vibrations produce
changes in the distance between the plates.
Since the plates are biased with a fixed charge (Q),
the voltage maintained across the capacitor plates
changes with the vibrations in the air.

61

ACCELEROMETER
SENSOR: MEMS
Types
Piezo-resistive
Proof mass suspended with piezoresistive beams
Simple structure, fabrication, and
readout (low imp. output)
Large temp. sensitivity, smaller
overall sensitivity than capacitance
devices

Capacitive
Acceleration is measured by the
capacitance between a fixed plate and
plate on the proof mass.
Stable (temperature, drift)
Can be susceptible to EMI.
Cost: approx $10.

62

MOTION
DETECTOR: TYPES
Photo Sensor

Beam of light crossing the room near the door,

and a photo sensor on the other side of the
room. When the beam breaks, the photo sensor
detects the change in the amount of light and
rings a bell (garage doors).

Microwave- Or Ultrasonic-based
Burst of microwave radio energy and waits for
the reflected energy to bounce back.
When a person moves into the field of
microwave energy, it changes the amount of
reflected energy or the time it takes for the
reflection to arrive.
The same thing can be done with ultrasonic
sound waves, bouncing them off a target and
waiting for the echo.

LIGHT SENSING: PRINCIPLES

Photo-chemistry
Light renders silver halide grains in
film emulsion developable
Thermal physics
Heating effect of incident light heats
a sensor that basically measures
temperature
Photo-physics
Interaction of light with matter frees
electrons or promotes them from
valence to conduction band

ACTUATORS: PRINCIPLES AND TYPES

A control system is incomplete without an
actuator.
A mechanism by which something can be put
into automatic action

Types:
Electric
Hydraulic
Mechanical
Pneumatic
Servo
Piezoelectric
Electro-active

ACTUATOR: SERVO MECHANISM

Provides a mechanical control on
electrical input
Feedback control to provide position
accuracy
Controls the electric input to the motor
Provides the angular motion
Exists in various sizes
Piezoelectric motor reduces size

THAN
K
YOU