Introduction to TOS-I

Theory of Structure - I

Lecture Outlines
Introduction
History

of Structural Engineering
Forms of Structures
Materials
Loads

Department of Civil Engineering

University of Engineering and
Technology, Taxila, Pakistan

Introduction
STRUCTURAL
ENGINEERING

1ST YEAR

2ND YEAR

3RD YEAR

4TH YEAR

ENGG.
MECHANICS

THEORY OF
STRUCTURES
I

THEORY OF
STRUCTURES
II

STRUC.
ENGG.

Department of Civil Engineering

University of Engineering and
Technology, Taxila, Pakistan

History of Structural
Engineering
Why

history is important?

One reason why history is important it that the

past has value to our society.
History is the narrative of mankind.
History when presented properly lends itself to
critical analysis.

Department of Civil Engineering

University of Engineering and
Technology, Taxila, Pakistan

History of Structural
Engineering
Greek

and Egyptian Temples

Made of stone
Employed beams and columns
Many columns having little useful space between
them

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University of Engineering and
Technology, Taxila, Pakistan

Greek temple built 2500 years ago

Department of Civil Engineering
University of Engineering and
Technology, Taxila, Pakistan

Greek temples of Poseidonia (now called Paestum)

dating from the sixth century BC.
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Technology, Taxila, Pakistan

The Temple of Debod built in early 2nd century BC

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Technology, Taxila, Pakistan

Egypt: Temples of Karnak built 2000 years ago

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University of Engineering and
Technology, Taxila, Pakistan

History of Structural
Engineering
Arch

structures were discovered prior to

Roman era.
Roman Empire used arches extensively in
construction.

Stone arches had span of 100 ft and more

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10

The Colosseum is one of Rome's most distinctive

landmarks. Construction of this famous amphitheatre
began in 72 AD.
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Arches

Aqueducts

Aqueduct at Segovia in eastern Spain

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The arch of Costantino built in 312 AD

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Technology, Taxila, Pakistan

13

History of Structural
Engineering
From

A.D. 500 to A.D.1500, structures that

were built continued to employ the stone arch
as the major structural forms.

Gothic Cathedrals
Roof was supported by flying buttresses

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Flying
Buttress
Cathedral
from North
East
Chichester

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15

Flying
Buttress
Cathedral
from South
East
Chichester

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History of Structural
Engineering

Fifteenth and Sixteenth centuries are known as

Renaissance.

Galileo (1564-1642)
Concept of force and moments
Robert Hooke (1635-1703)
Law of linear behavior of materials
Sir Isaac Newton (1642-1727)
Laws of motion
Leonhard Euler (1707-1783)
Buckling of columns
Palladio
introduced the use of truss
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17

GALILEO

ISSAC NEWTON
Department of Civil Engineering
University of Engineering and
Technology, Taxila, Pakistan

ROBERT HOOKE

LEONHARD EULER

PALLADIO
18

History of Structural
Engineering
Modern

Era

Introduction of Iron
Industrial Revolution

First

major structure built or iron was Severn

River Bridge Coalbrookdale.
Suspension bridges

Thomas Telfords Bridge over Menai Straits in

Wales,
Brunels Clifton Bridge in Bristol,
Finleys Bridge over Merrimack River in
Newburyport, Massachusetts.

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Iron bridge, a cast-iron arch bridge built in 1779 across the

River Severn near Coalbrookdale, Shropshire, England
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Thomas Telford built the suspension bridge in the middle in 1826. They had
to destroy some of the castle to anchor it to the rock.
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Isambard Kingdom Brunel designs the Clifton Suspension Bridge at

Bristol. Two hundred feet above the River Avon, the bridge is 700 feet
long.
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22

History of Structural
Engineering
Rank

Building - City - Country

1.

Burj Dubai, Dubai, UAE

2008

163*

850m*

2.

Taipei 101, Taipei, Taiwan

2004

101

509m

3.

Petronas Tower 1, Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia

1998

88

452m

4.

Petronas Tower 2, Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia

1998

88

452m

5.

Sears Tower, Chicago, USA

1974

110

442m

6.

Jin Mao Building, Shanghai, China

1999

88

421m

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Year

Stories Height

23

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Forms of Structures
Structural Forms

Cables

Arches

Trusses

Beams

Surfaces

Membranes
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Plates

Shells
25

Cables
Cables

stretch well and are light, so they are

useful in large structures. They only take
tension stresses.
Cables can be crisscrossed and combined
with surface materials to achieve light and
large structures.
Examples of this technique are Suncoast
Dome and Georgia Dome in the United
States
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Department of Civil Engineering

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Department of Civil Engineering

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Hanger

Tower

Cable

Cable
Anchorage

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Road Way

Golden Gate Bridge, San Francisco

29

Cables
Grace

Memorial Bridge over the Cooper River

Between Charleston, South Carolina (USA) and

Mount Pleasant, South Carolina, stands the Grace
Memorial Bridge.
Completed in 1929, the cantilever steel structure
has a main span of 1050 ft., or 320 m. and a total
length of 3.6 miles or 5.79 Kilometers.
A parallel bridge, with a similar design but a shorter
main span, was built in 1966. This allowed the old
bridge to be converted to one-way traffic.

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Grace Memorial Bridge over the Cooper River

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Arches
An

arch is a curved structure capable of

spanning a space while supporting significant
weight (e.g. a doorway in a stone wall).
The arch is significant because, in theory at
least, it provides a structure which eliminates
tensile stresses in spanning an open space.
All the forces are resolved into compressive
stresses.
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Technology, Taxila, Pakistan

32

Chinese Moon Bridge

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Made by Zhao1974 in Hebei Province, China. Built by the

architect Li Chun from 595 to 605 AD. World's oldest fullystone, open-spandrel, segmental arch bridge.
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Triangular Arch

Rampant Round
Arch

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Round Arch

Lancet Arch

Segmental Arch

Shoulder Flat
Arch

Equilateral
Pointed Arch

Three-Foiled
Cusped Arch

35

Horseshoe Arch

Inflexed Arch

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Three-centered
Arch

Ogee Arch

Elliptical Arch

Reverse Ogee
Arch

Parabolic Arch

Tudor Arch

36

Truss
In

architecture and structural engineering, a

truss is a structure comprising one or more
triangular units constructed with straight
slender members whose ends are connected
at joints.
A plane truss is one where all the members
and joints lie within a 2-dimensional plane,
while a space truss has members and joints
extending into 3 dimensions.
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Truss
All

members are assumed in axial

compression or tension.
Members are joined with the help of
frictionless pins.
Loads are applied at joints only.

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Types of Trusses

Common Truss

Flat Truss

Truncated Truss

It is characterized by
its triangular shape.

It gets its name from

its parallel top and
bottom chords.

A combination of the
two is a truncated
truss.

It is often used for

floor construction.

It is used in hip roof

construction.

It is most often used

for roof construction.

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University of Engineering and
Technology, Taxila, Pakistan

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Support structure under the Auckland Harbour Bridge.

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A Vierendeel bridge; note the lack of diagonal elements in the

primary structure and the way bending loads are carried between
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elements
University of Engineering and
Technology, Taxila, Pakistan

Beams
A

beam is a structural element that carries

load primarily in bending (flexure).
Beams generally carry vertical gravitational
forces but can also be used to carry
horizontal loads (i.e. loads due to an
earthquake or wind).
The loads carried by a beam are transferred
to columns, walls, or girders, which then
transfer the force to adjacent structural
compression members.
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Beams
It

requires only vertical supports at ends

generally.
It is a compact structure.
Its disadvantage is that it sometimes uses
materials less economically than other
structural systems.

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Department of Civil Engineering

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Department of Civil Engineering

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Surfaces
Surfaces

Membranes

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Technology, Taxila, Pakistan

Plates

Shells

46

Membranes

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Thin sheets of material

Resist applied loads by

tension.

Examples are tents,

sails, balloons etc

47

Plates

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Plates are flat

surfaces that transfer
loads by bending in a
manner similar to
beams.

48

Shells

Shell is rigid surface

that transfers loads in
two directions.
The primary difference
between a plate and a
shell is that the shell
has curvature whereas
the plate does not.

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University of Engineering and
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TWA Flight Center, John F. Kennedy

International Airport, New York.

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Materials
Properties
of Material

Deformation
Characteristics

Strength

Comp.
Tension
Resist.
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Strengt
h to
weight
ratio

Stiff

Elastic

Ductile

50

Materials
Aggregates
Steel
Concrete
Wood
Aluminum
Fiber

Glass
Composite Materials etc.
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Loads

Loads

Static Loads

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Loads

Dynamic
Loads

Dead

Live

52

Loads

Building
Live Loads

Bridge Live
Loads

Live Loads

Earthquake
Loads

Snow
Loads

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Wind
Loads

53

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Technology, Taxila, Pakistan

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Department of Civil Engineering

University of Engineering and
Technology, Taxila, Pakistan

55