Problem Solving and Basic Quality Tools

Sumeet Saini
October, 2015

Agenda
What is Problem Solving
Problem Solving Methodology
PDCA

Problem Solving Tools

Brainstorming
Cause and Effect Diagram
Flow Chart
Check sheet
Scatter Diagram
Stratification
Histogram
Pareto Chart
Run Chart
Control Chart

What is a problem?

Problem: 1) An event where requirements (customer or internal) are not being

met. 2) An unforeseen event

What is the cause?

Root Cause: 1) Verified reason that accounts for the described problem. 2)
Cause, which when eliminated, will prevent recurrence of the problem

What is problem-solving?

Problem Solving: Elimination of the cause of a nonconformity, potential

nonconformity or other undesirable condition in order to prevent its occurrence or
recurrence.

Common Cause
Common Cause

Variability inherent in the system.

Typical examples are machine variation, material variation, environmental
variation.

Special Cause
Special Cause

Variability is not inherent in the system. A root cause can be determined and
eliminated.
Typical examples are operator improperly set-up machine, ink viscosity too high

Acute Problem
Acute Problem

Problem may never have occurred in the past.

Immediate action is required to solve the problem.
Customer may be asking for immediate action.

Chronic Problem
Chronic Problem

Problem may not need immediate attention, but happens often.

Immediate action is not necessarily required to solve the problem.
Problem-solving may be preventative or improvement based.
Management decides to solve the problem based on analysis of data.
Control charts and pareto diagrams help in the decision-making process.

Problem Solving Methodology - PDCA

Problem Solving Methodology - PDCA
Description
The plandocheckact cycle is a four-step model for carrying out change. Just as a
circle has no end, the PDCA cycle should be repeated again and again for continuous
improvement.

10

PDCA
When To Use
As a model for continuous improvement.
When starting a new improvement project.
When developing a new or improved design of a process, product or service.
When defining a repetitive work process.
When planning data collection and analysis in order to verify and prioritize problems or
root causes.
When implementing any change

11

PDCA Procedure
1. Plan. Recognize an opportunity and plan a change.
2. Do. Test the change. Carry out a small-scale study.
3. Study. Review the test, analyze the results and identify what youve learned.
4. Act. Take action based on what you learned in the study step: If the change did
not work, go through the cycle again with a different plan. If you were
successful, incorporate what you learned from the test into wider changes. Use
what you learned to plan new improvements, beginning the cycle again.

12

13

Problem Statements
Write a statement using the following SMART rules.
Specific
Measurable
Achievable
Realistic
Time based
Use to narrow the focus of a problem so that you can use your time and
resources most effectively in finding a solution.

14

Why Use the Tools

Effective problem-solving is data driven. Data are impersonal; opinions are not.
Experience is gained quickest by collecting and analyzing data.
The tools provide common methods of analysis to help problem solving teams
operate effectively.
Operations problems usually may be solved by these tools
Note: product process design problems often require more advanced tools
such as design of experiments, FMEA, etc.

15

Basic Quality Tools

Brainstorming
Cause and Effect Diagram
Flow Chart
Check sheet
Scatter Diagram
Stratification
Histogram
Pareto Chart
Run Chart
Control Chart
Graphs

16

Brainstorming
Description
Brainstorming is a method for generating a large number of creative ideas in a short
period of time

When to Use
When a broad range of options is desired.
When creative, original ideas are desired.
When participation of the entire group is desired.

17

Brainstorming
Procedure
1. Review the rules of brainstorming with the entire group:

No criticism, no evaluation, no discussion of ideas.

There are no stupid ideas. The wilder the better.
All ideas are recorded.
Piggybacking is encouraged: combining, modifying, expanding others ideas.

2. Review the topic or problem to be discussed. Often it is best phrased as a why,

how, or what question. Make sure everyone understands the subject of the
brainstorm.
3. Allow a minute or two of silence for everyone to think about the question.
4. Invite people to call out their ideas. Record all ideas, in words as close as possible
to those used by the contributor. No discussion or evaluation of any kind is
permitted.
5. Continue to generate and record ideas until several minutes silence produces no
more.

18

Brainstorming
Things to Consider
Judgment and creativity are two functions that cannot occur simultaneously. Thats the reason for
the rules about no criticism and no evaluation.
Laughter and groans are criticism. When there is criticism, people begin to evaluate their ideas
before stating them. Fewer ideas are generated and creative ideas are lost.
Evaluation includes positive comments such as Great idea! That implies that another idea that
did not receive praise was mediocre.
The more the better. Studies have shown that there is a direct relationship between the total
number of ideas and the number of good, creative ideas.
The crazier the better. Be unconventional in your thinking. Dont hold back any ideas. Crazy ideas
are creative. They often come from a different perspective.
Crazy ideas often lead to wonderful, unique solutions, through modification or by sparking
someone elses imagination.
Hitchhike. Piggyback. Build on someone elses idea.
When brainstorming with a large group, someone other than the facilitator should be the recorder.
The facilitator should act as a buffer between the group and the recorder(s), keeping the flow of
ideas going and ensuring that no ideas get lost before being recorded.
The recorder should try not to rephrase ideas. If an idea is not clear, ask for a rephrasing that
everyone can understand. If the idea is too long to record, work with the person who suggested the
idea to come up with a concise rephrasing. The person suggesting the idea must always approve
what is recorded.
Keep all ideas visible. When ideas overflow to additional flipchart pages, post previous pages
around the room so all ideas are still visible to everyone.

19

Cause and Effect Diagram (Fishbone)

Description
The fishbone diagram identifies many possible causes for an effect or problem. It can be used to structure a
brainstorming session. It immediately sorts ideas into useful categories.

When To use
When identifying possible causes for a problem.
Especially when a teams thinking tends to fall into ruts.

The problem categories considered are :

Man, Machine, Method, Materials, Equipment & Environmental.

20

MAN

MATERIAL

EQUIPMENT

EFFECT

MACHINE

METHOD

ENVIRONMENT

The problem categories considered are :

Man, Machine, Method, Materials, Equipment & Environmental.
21

Cause and Effect Diagram

It give us relationship between Effects and its Possible Causes with
M-approach ( man, method, material, machine)

Cause and Effect Diagram

Procedure
1. Agree on a problem statement (effect). Write it at the center right of the flipchart or whiteboard.
Draw a box around it and draw a horizontal arrow running to it.
2. Brainstorm the major categories of causes of the problem. If this is difficult use generic headings:

Methods
Machines (equipment)
People (manpower)
Materials
Measurement
Environment

3. Write the categories of causes as branches from the main arrow.

4. Brainstorm all the possible causes of the problem. Ask: Why does this happen? As each idea is
given, the facilitator writes it as a branch from the appropriate category. Causes can be written in
several places if they relate to several categories.
5. Again ask why does this happen? about each cause. Write sub-causes branching off the
causes. Continue to ask Why? and generate deeper levels of causes. Layers of branches
indicate causal relationships.
6. When the group runs out of ideas, focus attention to places on the chart where ideas are few.

23

24

Cause and Effect Diagram

25

Flow Chart
Description
A flowchart is a picture of the separate steps of a process in sequential order.
Elements that may be included are: sequence of actions, materials or services entering or
leaving the process (inputs and outputs), decisions that must be made, people who
become involved, time involved at each step and/or process measurements.
The process described can be anything: a manufacturing process, an administrative or
service process, a project plan. This is a generic tool that can be adapted for a wide variety
of purposes.

26

Flow Chart
When To Use

To develop understanding of how a process is done.

To study a process for improvement.
To communicate to others how a process is done.
When better communication is needed between people involved with the same
process.
To document a process.
When planning a project.

27

Flow Chart
Procedure
1. Define the process to be diagrammed. Write its title at the top of the work surface.
2. Discuss and decide on the boundaries of your process: Where or when does the
process start? Where or when does it end? Discuss and decide on the level of detail
to be included in the diagram.
3. Brainstorm the activities that take place. Write each on a card or sticky note.
Sequence is not important at this point, although thinking in sequence may help
people remember all the steps.
4. Arrange the activities in proper sequence.
5. When all activities are included and everyone agrees that the sequence is correct,
draw arrows to show the flow of the process.
6. Review the flowchart with others involved in the process (workers, supervisors,
suppliers, customers) to see if they agree that the process is drawn accurately.

28

Flow Chart
Considerations
Dont worry too much about drawing the flowchart the right way. The right way is the
way that helps those involved understand the process.
Identify and involve in the flowcharting process all key people involved with the process.
This includes those who do the work in the process: suppliers, customers and
supervisors. Involve them in the actual flowcharting sessions by interviewing them
before the sessions and/or by showing them the developing flowchart between work
sessions and obtaining their feedback.
Do not assign a technical expert to draw the flowchart. People who actually perform
the process should do it.
Computer software is available for drawing flowcharts. Software is useful for drawing a
neat final diagram, but the method given here works better for the messy initial stages of
creating the flowchart.

29

Flow Chart Symbols

One step in the process; the step is written inside the box. Usually, only one
arrow goes out of the box.
Direction of flow from one step or decision to another.
Decision based on a question. The question is written in the diamond. More
than one arrow goes out of the diamond, each one showing the direction
the process takes for a given answer to the question. (Often the answers
are yes and no.)
Delay or wait
Link to another page or another flowchart. The same symbol on the other
page indicates that the flow continues there.
Input or output
Document
Alternate symbols for start and end points
30

Incoming Material:
Components
P.C. board
Q.C.

Vendor
Repaired
Use as is

Fail

Pass
Auto Insertion
Q.C.

Fail

Rework/S
crap

Pass
Hand Assembly
Q.C.

Fail
Pass

Flow Chart: P.C Board Flow

Wave Solder and Cleaning

Q.C.

Fail
Pass

Rework/S
crap

Post Assembly Touch-up

Q.C.

Fail
Pass

Auto
Test

Fail
Pass

Ship

Rework/S
crap

Flow Chart
A visual representation of a process which can help in identifying points where
Flowmay
Chart
failures
occur and intervention is useful

32

Check Sheet
Description
A check sheet is a structured, prepared form for collecting and analyzing data. This is a
generic tool that can be adapted for a wide variety of purposes.

When To use
When data can be observed and collected repeatedly by the same person or at the
same location.
When collecting data on the frequency or patterns of events, problems, defects, defect
location, defect causes, etc.
When collecting data from a production process.

33

Check Sheet
Procedure
1. Decide what event or problem will be observed. Develop operational definitions.
2. Decide when data will be collected and for how long.
3. Design the form. Set it up so that data can be recorded simply by making check
marks or Xs or similar symbols and so that data do not have to be recopied for
analysis.
4. Label all spaces on the form.
5. Test the check sheet for a short trial period to be sure it collects the appropriate data
and is easy to use.
6. Each time the targeted event or problem occurs, record data on the check sheet.

34

Check Sheet

35

Checklist
Simple data check-off sheet designed to identify type of quality problems at
each work station; per shift, per machine, per operator

36

Check Sheet

A simple tool for collecting data

37

Scatter Diagram

Description
The scatter diagram graphs pairs of numerical data, with one variable on each axis, to
look for a relationship between them. If the variables are correlated, the points will fall
along a line or curve. The better the correlation, the tighter the points will hug the line.

38

Scatter Diagram
Procedure
1. Collect pairs of data (50-100) where a relationship is suspected.
2. Draw a graph with the independent variable on the horizontal axis and the
dependent variable on the vertical axis. For each pair of data, put a dot or a symbol
where the x-axis value intersects the y-axis value. (If two dots fall together, put them
side by side, touching, so that you can see both.)
3. Look at the pattern of points to see if a relationship is obvious. If the data clearly
form a line or a curve, you may stop. The variables are correlated. You may wish to
use regression or correlation analysis now.

39

Scatter Diagram
When to Use
When you have paired numerical data.
When your dependent variable may have multiple values for each value of your
independent variable.
When trying to determine whether the two variables are related, such as
When trying to identify potential root causes of problems.
After brainstorming causes and effects using a fishbone diagram, to determine objectively
whether a particular cause and effect are related.
When determining whether two effects that appear to be related both occur with the same
cause.
When testing for autocorrelation before constructing a control chart

40

Scatter Diagram

Effect Variable

A graphical tool to check if two relationships exist between two variables.

Cause Variable
41

Scatter Diagram

Positive Correlation

Negative Correlation

No Correlation

42

Scatter Diagram
Things to Consider
Even if the scatter diagram shows a relationship, do not assume that one variable
caused the other. Both may be influenced by a third variable.
When the data are plotted, the more the diagram resembles a straight line, the
stronger the relationship.
If a line is not clear, statistics determine whether there is reasonable certainty that a
relationship exists. If the statistics say that no relationship exists, the pattern could
have occurred by random chance.
If the scatter diagram shows no relationship between the variables, consider whether
the data might be stratified.
If the diagram shows no relationship, consider whether the independent (x-axis)
variable has been varied widely. Sometimes a relationship is not apparent because the
data dont cover a wide enough range.
Think creatively about how to use scatter diagrams to discover a root cause.
Drawing a scatter diagram is the first step in looking for a relationship between
variables.

43

Stratification
Description
Stratification is a technique used in combination with other data analysis tools. When
data from a variety of sources or categories have been lumped together, the meaning of
the data can be impossible to see. This technique separates the data so that patterns
can be seen.

When to Use
Before collecting data.
When data come from several sources or conditions, such as shifts, days of the week,
suppliers or population groups.
When data analysis may require separating different sources or conditions.

44

Stratification
Procedure
1. Before collecting data, consider which information about the sources of the data
might have an effect on the results. Set up the data collection so that you collect that
information as well.
2. When plotting or graphing the collected data on a scatter diagram, control chart,
histogram or other analysis tool, use different marks or colors to distinguish data from
various sources. Data that are distinguished in this way are said to be stratified.
3. Analyze the subsets of stratified data separately. For example, on a scatter diagram
where data are stratified into data from source 1 and data from source 2, draw
quadrants, count points and determine the critical value only for the data from source
1, then only for the data from source 2.

45

Stratification

Now patterns can be seen.

The data from reactor 2 and
reactor 3 are circled. Even
without doing any calculations,
it is clear that for those two
reactors, purity decreases as
iron increases. However, the
data from reactor 1, the solid
dots that are not circled, do not
show that relationship.
Something is different about
reactor 1.

46

Stratification
Things to Consider
Here are examples of different sources that might require data to be stratified:

Equipment
Shifts
Departments
Materials
Suppliers
Day of the week
Time of day
Products

Survey data usually benefit from stratification.

Always consider before collecting data whether stratification might be needed during
analysis. Plan to collect stratification information. After the data are collected it might
be too late.
On your graph or chart, include a legend that identifies the marks or colors used.

47

Histogram

Description
A frequency distribution shows how often each different value in a set of data occurs. A
histogram is the most commonly used graph to show frequency distributions. It looks
very much like a bar chart, but there are important differences between them.

48

Histogram
When to Use
When the data are numerical.
When you want to see the shape of the datas distribution, especially when
determining whether the output of a process is distributed approximately normally.
When analyzing whether a process can meet the customers requirements.
When analyzing what the output from a suppliers process looks like.
When seeing whether a process change has occurred from one time period to another.
When determining whether the outputs of two or more processes are different.
When you wish to communicate the distribution of data quickly and easily to others.

49

Histogram
Histogram construction
Collect at least 50 consecutive data points from a process.
Use the histogram worksheet to set up the histogram. It will help you determine the
number of bars, the range of numbers that go into each bar and the labels for the bar
edges. After calculating W in step 2 of the worksheet, use your judgment to adjust it
to a convenient number. For example, you might decide to round 0.9 to an even 1.0.
The value for W must not have more decimal places than the numbers you will be
graphing.
Draw x- and y-axes on graph paper. Mark and label the y-axis for counting data
values. Mark and label the x-axis with the L values from the worksheet. The spaces
between these numbers will be the bars of the histogram. Do not allow for spaces
between bars.
For each data point, mark off one count above the appropriate bar with an X or by
shading that portion of the bar.

50

Histogram

A graph which presents the collected data as a frequency distribution in barchart form

51

Histogram
Histogram Analysis
Before drawing any conclusions from your histogram, satisfy yourself that the process
was operating normally during the time period being studied. If any unusual events
affected the process during the time period of the histogram, your analysis of the
histogram shape probably cannot be generalized to all time periods.
Analyze the meaning of your histograms shape.

52

Histogram
Normal
A common pattern is the bell-shaped curve known as the normal distribution. In a
normal distribution, points are as likely to occur on one side of the average as on the
other. Be aware, however, that other distributions look similar to the normal distribution.
Statistical calculations must be used to prove a normal distribution.
Dont let the name normal confuse you. The outputs of many processesperhaps even
a majority of themdo not form normal distributions , but that does not mean anything is
wrong with those processes. For example, many processes have a natural limit on one
side and will produce skewed distributions. This is normal meaning typical for those
processes, even if the distribution isnt called normal!

53

Histogram

Skewed
The skewed distribution is asymmetrical because a natural limit prevents outcomes on
one side. The distributions peak is off center toward the limit and a tail stretches away
from it. For example, a distribution of analyses of a very pure product would be
skewed, because the product cannot be more than 100 percent pure. Other examples
of natural limits are holes that cannot be smaller than the diameter of the drill bit or
call-handling times that cannot be less than zero. These distributions are called rightor left-skewed according to the direction of the tail.

54

Histogram

Double Peak or Bimodal

The bimodal distribution looks like the back of a two-humped camel. The outcomes of
two processes with different distributions are combined in one set of data. For
example, a distribution of production data from a two-shift operation might be bimodal,
if each shift produces a different distribution of results. Stratification often reveals this
problem.

55

Histogram

Plateau
The plateau might be called a multimodal distribution. Several processes with normal
distributions are combined. Because there are many peaks close together, the top of
the distribution resembles a plateau.

56

Histogram

Edge Peak
The edge peak distribution looks like the normal distribution except that it has a large
peak at one tail. Usually this is caused by faulty construction of the histogram, with
data lumped together into a group labeled greater than

57

Histogram

Truncated or heart-cut
The truncated distribution looks like a normal distribution with the tails cut off. The
supplier might be producing a normal distribution of material and then relying on
inspection to separate what is within specification limits from what is out of spec. The
resulting shipments to the customer from inside the specifications are the heart cut.

58

Histogram

Dog Food
The dog food distribution is missing somethingresults near the average. If a customer
receives this kind of distribution, someone else is receiving a heart cut, and the customer
is left with the dog food, the odds and ends left over after the masters meal. Even
though what the customer receives is within specifications, the product falls into two
clusters: one near the upper specification limit and one near the lower specification limit.
This variation often causes problems in the customers process

59

Pareto Chart

Description
A Pareto chart is a bar graph. The lengths of the bars represent frequency or cost (time
or money), and are arranged with longest bars on the left and the shortest to the right. In
this way the chart visually depicts which situations are more significant.

Often called the 80-20 Rule

Principle is that quality problems are the result of only a few problems e.g. 80% of the
problems caused by 20% of causes

60

Pareto Chart

When to Use
When analyzing data about the frequency of problems or causes in a process.
When there are many problems or causes and you want to focus on the most
significant.
When analyzing broad causes by looking at their specific components.
When communicating with others about your data.

61

Pareto Chart
Procedure
1. Decide what categories you will use to group items.
2. Decide what measurement is appropriate. Common measurements are frequency,
quantity, cost and time.
3. Decide what period of time the Pareto chart will cover: One work cycle? One full day? A
week?
4. Collect the data, recording the category each time. (Or assemble data that already exist.)
5. Subtotal the measurements for each category.
6. Determine the appropriate scale for the measurements you have collected. The maximum
value will be the largest subtotal from step 5. (If you will do optional steps 8 and 9 below,
the maximum value will be the sum of all subtotals from step 5.) Mark the scale on the left
side of the chart.
7. Construct and label bars for each category. Place the tallest at the far left, then the next
tallest to its right and so on. If there are many categories with small measurements, they
can be grouped as other.

62

Pareto Chart
Procedure Cont.
Steps 8 and 9 are optional but are useful for analysis and communication.
8. Calculate the percentage for each category: the subtotal for that category divided by
the total for all categories. Draw a right vertical axis and label it with percentages. Be
sure the two scales match: For example, the left measurement that corresponds to
one-half should be exactly opposite 50% on the right scale.
9. Calculate and draw cumulative sums: Add the subtotals for the first and second
categories, and place a dot above the second bar indicating that sum. To that sum
add the subtotal for the third category, and place a dot above the third bar for that
new sum. Continue the process for all the bars. Connect the dots, starting at the top
of the first bar. The last dot should reach 100 percent on the right scale.

63

Pareto Chart

64

PARETO ANALYSIS
96.2

100.0

3000

90.0

81.4

80.0

2500

2000

60.0
50.0

1500

40.0
1000

30.0

Cum. Percentage

70.0

63.8

No of peices

100.0

20.0
500
10.0
0

DEFECT QTY
CUM %

SHORT SHOT

SILVER

SINK MARK

FLASH

2064.0

567.0

480.0

122.0

63.8

81.4

96.2

100.0

0.0

65

Pareto Chart

66

Run Chart
Description
A graphical tool to monitor important process variables over time. A helpful tool in
identifying trends and cycles.

When to Use
To monitor process performance.
In determining when a change to a process might have occurred.

67

Run Chart
Procedure
Gather data, process or operations measurements.
Organize data into two sets of values X and Y. X values represent the time and Y
values represent the measurements taken for the process or operation.
Chart the data by plotting the Y values versus the X values.
Interpret the data looking for patterns formed by the data.

68

Run Chart

69

Control Chart

Description
The control chart is a graph used to study how a process changes over time. Data are
plotted in time order. A control chart always has a central line for the average, an upper
line for the upper control limit and a lower line for the lower control limit. These lines are
determined from historical data. By comparing current data to these lines, you can draw
conclusions about whether the process variation is consistent (in control) or is
unpredictable (out of control, affected by special causes of variation).

70

CONTROL CHARTS
Control charts are Trend Chards, for Analysis and Presentation of
data.

Control charts in itself a big topic.

Many Calculations.
Type of
Control Charts

Variable

attribute
defects

X and
chart

X and
S chart

X and
R chart

X and
MR
chart

C - chart

U - chart

defective

nP- chart

We will study here only these important charts

P - chart

Control Chart

Process variations can be one of two types:

Random variations which are created by many minor factors.

Assignable variations whose main source can be identified and corrected.

There are four types of control charts:

Control Charts for Variables. Variables are measured such as length of time a
certain item is out of stock. Control charts can be:

Mean Control Charts (central tendency of process)

Range Control Charts (variability of process)

Control Charts for Attributes. Attributes are counted such as number of service
calls and number of returns on an item. Control charts can be:

p-charts (percent failure)

c-Charts (number of defects)

73

Control Chart
When To use
When controlling ongoing processes by finding and correcting problems as they occur.
When predicting the expected range of outcomes from a process.
When determining whether a process is stable (in statistical control).
When analyzing patterns of process variation from special causes (non-routine events)
or common causes (built into the process).
When determining whether your quality improvement project should aim to prevent
specific problems or to make fundamental changes to the process.

74

Control Chart
Procedure
1. Choose the appropriate control chart for your data.
2. Determine the appropriate time period for collecting and plotting data.
3. Collect data, construct your chart and analyze the data.
4. Look for out-of-control signals on the control chart. When one is identified, mark it on
the chart and investigate the cause. Document how you investigated, what you
learned, the cause and how it was corrected.
5. Continue to plot data as they are generated. As each new data point is plotted, check
for new out-of-control signals.
6. When you start a new control chart, the process may be out of control. If so, the
control limits calculated from the first 20 points are conditional limits. When you have
at least 20 sequential points from a period when the process is operating in control,
recalculate control limits.

75

Control Chart
Out Of Control Signals
1. A single point outside the control limits. In the control chart, point sixteen is above
the UCL (upper control limit).
2. Two out of three successive points are on the same side of the centerline and
farther than 2 from it. In control chart, point 4 sends that signal.
3. Four out of five successive points are on the same side of the centerline and farther
than 1 from it. In the control chart, point 11 sends that signal.
4. A run of eight in a row are on the same side of the centerline. Or 10 out of 11, 12 out
of 14 or 16 out of 20. In the control chart, point 21 is eighth in a row above the
centerline.
5. Obvious consistent or persistent patterns that suggest something unusual about
your data and your process.

76

Control Chart

77

(X - bar) and R chart.

It Simply tell us
where the process is going.
Is the process under control ?
Are we have to increase the no of inspections ?

Lets build it.

Formulas for

-- R chart

UCLR = D4 x R
LCLR = D3 x R
UCLX = X + A2 R
LCLX = X - A2 R
In these formulas, we have
constants, D4, D3, A2, values of
these constants we will get
from table 1.1 ( last slide)

But 1st learn below things .

-- X bar ( average)
-- X double bar (average of average)
(its also center line of X-bar chart)
R Average of Range
(its also center line for R-bar chart)
UCLR upper control limit for R chart
LCLR lower control limit for R chart
UCLX upper control limit for X-bar chart
LCLX lower control limit for X-bar chart

Lets take an example- in which we will took a lot from, running line, after
every 30 minute for inspection of weight of product.
In each lot we take 5 samples.

1.) Collect data.

( as in figure below).

2.) Now Calculate the

As like for
lot 1.

(average) and

R(range) for each lot. (as in figure below)

= (5.5+5.1+5+5.2+5.4)/5
=5.24

R (range)= max- min

= 5.5 - 5
= 0.5

3.) Now Calculate .

(average of average for X) (as in figure below)

4.) Now Calculate . R ( average of Range) ( as in figure below)

So,

5.19

0.4

5.) Now Calculate , limits. as below

UCLR = D4 x R
LCLR = D3 x R=2.114 x 0.4 = 0.8456
UCLX = X + A=20 x 0.4 = 0
=5.19 + 0.577x 0.4 = 5.420
R
=5.19 0.577x 0.4 = 4.969
LCLX = X A2

Find constants values From table

1.1 for 5 samples, in a lot. ( last
slide)
D4 = 2.114
D3 = 0
A2 = 0.577

6.) Calculations are now over, so plot the graph.

R = 0.4

= 5.19

X-bar and MR chart

When we cant take multiple samples, in a lot. We use X-bar and MR chart.
Processes like- chemical process, where the cost of test is so high, that we
cant get, multiple samples.
Here
UCL MR = MR x D4
LCLMR = MR x 0 = 0

UCL X = X + 3( MR / 1.13)
LCLX = X 3( MR / 1.13)
Central line = X

MR = difference between the value and value immediately proceeding.

As we have only 1 sample in each lot, so mean n=1 , for X bar chart.
But for MR chart , as MR is comes out, by differencing two samples, mean in
each lot we have 2 samples, mean n=2, for MR chart.
D4 = 3.267 , for 2 samples, for MR chart,
from table 1.1 (last slide).

Make all values of MR +ve IN TABLE

UCL MR = MR x D4 = 0.235 x 3.267 = 0.767

LCL
=+MR
x 0 =/ 1.13)
0.235=x5.26
0 = 0+ 3(0.235 / 1.13)= 5.883
UCL
3( MR
MRX
X =
LCLX = X 3( MR / 1.13) = 5.26 3(0.235 / 1.13)= 4.636
Central line = X = 5.26
Central line = MR = 0.235

MR

P-Chart (fraction defective)

Ratio of number of items rejected to the number of items inspected is known

as fraction defective.

UCL = P + 3 P( 1- P )/n
n= sample size

LCL = P - 3 P( 1- P )/n

Lets take an example of studying n=100 samples each day for 10 days.

Total number of defected samples = 110

Total number of samples inspected = 100x10 =1000
So, P = 110/1000 = 0.11
UCL = 0.203866 ( after calculation)
LCL =0.016134 (after calculation)

We calculated everything , so just build it.

C- Chart

We use it when , a defected product , is also accepted.

It depends on how many defects are there in the defected product.

If LCL, comes ve, take it zero.

UCL = C + 3

LCL = C - 3

Lets take an example, of studying GALASS ITEM, having number of bubbles, in

that as defects. We studied 10 items.

So , C = 80/10 = 8
UCL = 16.484
LCL = - 0.484 = 0
( so if any defected item, has defects below 16.484, that item will we be accepted.)

Now we calculated everything, so just build C-chart

Item Rejected ( because number of defects, in
that item are more than UCL= 16.484 )

16.484

8.00
0.00

Dont get confuse between P chart, and C chart.

P- chart, use
C- chart use

for DEFECTED ITEMS.

for NUBER OF DEFECTS, IN EACH ITEM.

Box - and Whisker Plot

Circle Graph

Pictograph

Types of Graphs
Bar Graphs

Line Graphs

Single

Plots

Stem & Leaf

Histogram

Single

Line
Double

Double
Scatter

Days of the Week

Pictograph

Fireflies

Bar Graph

Number of Students

Favorite Subjects
70
60
50
40
30
20
10
0
Math

Science

Reading
Subjects

Social Studies

Double Bar Graph

Plant Growth
20

Inches

15
Light
Dark

10
5
0
Week 1

Week 2

Week 3
Weeks

Week 4

Histogram

Class Test Scores

10
9

Frequency

8
7
6
5
4
3
2
1
10-Jan

11-20

21-30

31-40

41-50

Test Scores

51-60

61-70

71-80

81-90

90-99

Line Graph

Double Line Graph

Amount of Rainfall
5
Inches

4
3

1999

2000

1
0
May

June

July
Months

August

Circle Graph

Eye Color
8%
20%

40%

32%

Brown
Blue
Green
Other

Line Plot

Favorite Colors
X
X
X

Red

Blue

Green

Yellow

Purple

Stem and Leaf Plot

Student Heights in Centimeters

12 7,8,8,9
7889
13 1,2,4,4,4,6,6
1244466
14 0,0,2,3,3,4,7
0023347
15 1,1
11
Key: 12

7 = 127 cm

Scatter Plot

Study Time Versus Grades

100
80
Grade

60

*
*

* *

40
20
0

2
Study Time in Hours

Box - and - Whisker Plot

Hours of Homework
5.25

6.3

6.9
7.75

Bar Graph
The purpose of a
bar graph is to
display and
compare data.
Bar graphs use bars
to show the data.
A bar graph must
include:
- a title
- labeled X and Y
axes

- equal intervals
are used on the Y
axis
- the bars are
evenly spaced
apart from each
other

Stem and Leaf Plot

Stem and leaf plots are used as a quick way
of seeing how many pieces of data fall in
various ranges. The reader can quickly tell:
- the range
- the mode
Stem and leaf plots have a title, a stem, and
leaves
A key is used to explain how to read the
stem and leaves.

Pictograph
All pictographs
have a title.

Use pictures to
show the data.

Rows and columns

shape the
pictograph.

Each picture
equals a certain
amount of data.

Label each row and

column.

Pictographs need a
key.

Line Graph
A line graph is used
to illustrate change
over time.
Line graphs need:
- Title
- Labeled X and
Y axes
- Equal Intervals

- Data displayed
by points
connected into
lines

Double Line Graph

A double line graph
is used to compare
two groups of
related data over
time.
Double line graphs
need:
- Title
- Labeled X and Y
axes

- Equal Intervals
- Data displayed
by points
connected into
lines
- Key

Circle Graph
Circle graphs are
used to display
parts of the data in
relation to the
entire amount of
data.
All circle graphs
need a title.

Each part is called

a sector and is
labeled.
All angles correct
(+2/-2 degrees)

Double Bar Graph

The purpose of a
double bar graph is
to compare two or
more sets of data.
Uses bars to show
the data.
Double bar graphs
must include:
- Title
- Labeled X and Y
axes

- Equal intervals
are used on the Y
axis
- Pairs of bars are
equally spaced,
but the compared
bars are not
- Key

Line Plot
A line plot shows the spread of all the
data on a number line.
Easily identifies the mode.
All line plots include:
- a title
- a numbered horizontal line
- data displayed by use of Xs

Histogram
Histograms are used
to show the
frequency of data.
Very similar to bar
graphs, but use
intervals on the X
axis.
Bars do touch.

Histograms have a
title.
Histograms have
two axes which are
labeled.

Box - and - Whisker Plot

Displays large set
of data.
Gives general idea
of how data
clusters.
Graph includes:
- Title

- Labeled intervals
- Box between lower
and upper quartiles
- Whiskers from
quartiles to extremes
- Median, quartiles
and whiskers labeled

Scatter Plot
Shows how closely
two sets of data
are related
The closer the sets
are related, the
closer the points
come to forming a
straight line.

Scatter Plots
include:
- title
- labeled axes
- equal intervals
- corresponding
numbers plotted as
ordered pairs

Basic Quality Tool In Correlation

With PDCA-Cycle Steps:

113

 Continuous improvement is driven by the need to solve problems

effectively:
Get to the root cause
Use improvement methodology PDCA
Use data, not opinion
Use quality tools to collect and analyze data

115