CARBOHYDRATE

K.SANGEETHA MPHARM

INTRODUCTION
Carbohydrates

are one of the three

major classes of biological
molecules.
Carbohydrates are also the most
abundant biological molecules.
Carbohydrates derive their name
from the general formula (CH2O)n.

CARBOHYDRATES
Carbohydrates are carbon
compounds that contain large
quantities of hydroxyl groups.
Carbohydrates are chemically
characterized as:
Poly hydroxy aldehydes or
Poly hydroxy ketones.

FUNCTIONS
Variety of important functions in living
systems:
nutritional (energy-storage, fuels,
metabolic intermediates)

structural (components of nucleotides,

plant and bacterial cell walls, animal
connective tissue)

informational (cell surface of eukaryotesmolecular recognition, cell-cell

communication)

osmotic pressure regulation (bacteria)

ALDOSE AND KETOSE

Sugars

that contain an aldehyde

group are called Aldoses.
Sugars that contain a keto group
are called Ketoses.

ALDEHYDE AND KETONE

CLASSIFICATION
All carbohydrates can be classified
as either:
Monosaccharides
Disaccharides
Oligosaccharides

Polysaccharides.

or

CLASSIFICATION
Monosaccharides-

one unit of

carbohydrate
Disaccharides- Two units of
carbohydrates.
Anywhere from two to ten
monosaccharide units, make up an
oligosaccharide.
Polysaccharides are much larger,
containing hundreds of
monosaccharide units.

MONOSACCHARIDES
Aldoses (e.g., glucose) have an
aldehyde group at one end.

MONOSACCHARIDES
Ketoses (e.g., fructose) have a keto
group, usually at C2.

D Vs L DESIGNATION
D & L designations are based on
the configuration about the single
asymmetric C in glyceraldehyde.

SUGAR NOMENCLATURE

For

sugars with more than one

chiral centre, D or L refers to the
asymmetric C farthest from the
aldehyde or keto group.
Most naturally occurring sugars
are D isomers.

PENTOSE
Pentoses

and hexoses can cyclize

as the ketone or aldehyde reacts
with a distal OH.

Glucose

forms an intra-molecular
hemiacetal, as the C1 aldehyde &
C5 OH react, to form a 6-member
pyranose ring, named after
pyran.

D-GLUCOSE

DISACCHARIDES

DISACCHARIDES

Sucrose, common table sugar, is

composed of glucose & fructose.
Lactose, milk sugar, is composed
of galactose & glucose

POLYSACCHARIDES

Plants store glucose as amylose or amylopectin, glucose

polymers collectively called starch.

POLYSACCHARIDES

CARBOHYDRATES
The cells in your body absorb
energy from things you eat. Now,
they dont just take that roast beef
sandwich you had for lunch and
turn it straight into energy. Instead,
first your digestive system breaks
it down into simple compounds
that your cells can use.

CARBOHYDRATES
After you eat, glucose is created in your
digestive system and absorbed through
your intestines. From there, it enters your
bloodstream, which takes it through your
whole body. The problem is that glucose
doesnt store well, and having too much
free glucose in your bloodstream can lead
to all manner of health problems excess
glucose in the blood can cause anything
from blurry vision from distended cells in
the eye to build-ups of triglycerides (fatty
plaques) in the blood vessels, and more.

Normal and diabetic blood sugar ranges

For the majority of healthy individuals, normal blood sugar
levels are as follows:
Normal blood glucose level in humans is about 4 mM
(4 mmol/L or 72 mg/dL)
When operating normally the body restores blood sugar
levels to a range of 4.4 to 6.1 mmol/L (82 to 110 mg/dL)
Shortly after a meal the blood glucose level may rise
temporarily up to 7.8 mmol/L (140 mg/dL)
For people with diabetes, blood sugar level targets are as
follows:
Before meals: 4 to 7 mmol/L for people with type 1 or type
2
After meals: under 9 mmol/L for people with type 1 and
8.5mmol/L for people with type 2