Foundations

Foundations
It is the lowest part of structure located below the
ground level
It provides base for super structure
It transmits loads to soil below
Function of foundation
To transmit all superimposed loads (wind, vibration,
dead and live loads)
To withstand against all kinds of settlements
(against failure of underlying soil)
To give stability to structure by resisting in firm base
To prevent lateral movement of supporting materials

Characteristics of foundations
Wide enough section to distribute
weight over larger base area within
safe bearing capacity.
Evenly loaded condition that
prevents unequal settlement.
Deep enough preventing overturning
and increasing stability.

Soil and soil exploration

Soil and its properties
Soil is uncemented geological deposits
It is the basis of foundation
Property of soil decides the type of
foundation
Types of soil: Cohesive and Cohesion less
Sub-soil exploration
Very important phase in construction and
determines
the
characteristics
of
underlying soil.
Soil
investigation
is
must
before
undertaking construction works.
Acquires general picture of geology of area.
4

Objectives of soil
exploration
To determine the value of safe
bearing capacity of soil.
To select economic types of
foundation.
To determine the depth of proposed
foundation.
To predict likely settlement and
make allowance for that in design.
To know underground water level
and its problem

Method of soil exploration

Naked eye observation
Following information are gathered during inspection of site
Hard, soft, water logged etc
Classification of soil by visual examination such as gravel, sand,
clay
Behavior of ground during changes in ground water level, drainage
conditions
Contains sulphates or other chemicals
Unstable sites slopes etc.
Test pits
Holes dig for the entry of person for inspection are called test pits.
Test pits are square in plan and depths depend on the foundation
type.
Helps to know type of soil at small depth, pit size: 1.5*1.5 m and
depth 1.5m.
This method is suitable for depth up to 3m
Suitable for cohesive soil
6

Method of soil exploration

Cont.
Probing
A steel bar of 25 to 40 mm in diameter
hammered into the soil until the hard substructure is met and nature of the soil is
obtained by examining the soil sticking to the
sides of the bar
Hollow tube of 35-50 mm is driven to ground
at about 30 cm at a time.
Boring
Auger
Deep: percussion and rotating boring.
Wash: case tube is driven along with this a
wash jet is inserted, this washes the soil below
and bring it to the surface.

Method of soil exploration

Cont.
Geo-physical methods
Electrical method
Electric current is passed through
cathode and anode in soil and the
flow of current through cathode to
anode is the measure of soil below.
Seismic methods
Vibrations are caused by artificial
explosions and the movement of
these vibration waves measures the
soil characteristics.

Types of Soil
Soil is classified into following
types
Cohesion less soil
Coarse grained soils ->gravels and
sand
Cohesive soil
Fine grained soil-silt and clay.

Bearing capacity of soil

It is the ability of soil to support the load
coming over it.
It is the strength of soil to resist minimum
load coming to its unit area causing no
failure.
Maximum bearing capacity of soil = W/ A
Safe bearing capacity = W/(A*f)
where,
W is Total load including self weight
A is area of sole plate and
f is factor of safety
10

Methods of improving bearing

capacity of soil
1 Increase the depth of foundation
In granular soil, the bearing capacity increases
with the depth. This method is suitable when
better bearing stratum is encountered at greater
depth.
2 Drainage of sub-soil water
Presence of water decreases the bearing power of
soil. Water in soil is collected and drains out.
3 Compaction of soil
Compaction of soil results in the improvement of
bearing capacity and reduction in the resulting
settlement.

Methods of improving bearing

capacity of soil Cont.
Different methods of compaction are
a) Ramming
Hand rammers or mechanically operated frog
rammers
b) Ruble compaction
Layer of 30 to 45 cm of well graded rubble is
spread over the foundation layer and
rammed.
c) Flooding the soil
Used for very loose soil

Methods of improving bearing

capacity of soil Cont.
d) Vibration
Heavy vibrations, rollers are used
e) Grouting
Bore holes are driven in the ground and
cement grout is forced. The cracks and voids
of the strata are filled with the grout.
f) Chemical treatment
Chemicals such as calcium, sodium chloride
and sodium silicate are grouted in the soil
which consolidates the soil.

Load Test
1. Plate load test
Plate load test is a field test to determine
the ultimate bearing capacity of soil and the
probable settlement under a given loading.
The test essentially consists in loading at a
foundation level and determining the
settlements corresponding to each load
increment. The ultimate bearing capacity is
then taken as the load at which the plate
starts sinking at a rapid rate.

Load Test
2. Penetration test
This test involves the measurement of the
resistance to penetration of a sampling spoon a
cone or other shaped tool under dynamic or
static loadings. The resistance is empirically
correlated with some of the engineering
properties of soil such as density index, bearing
capacity etc. There are two types of penetration
test they are;
Standard penetration test
Dutch cone test

Types of foundation
Shallow foundation
Deep foundation
1. Shallow foundation
Depth of foundation is less than or equal to width. It
transfers the superimposed load to the soil at a level
close to the lowest floor of the building.
Different types of shallow foundation are
Spread footing
Combined footing
Strap footing
Mat foundation

Types of foundation
Cont.
a) Spread footing or pad foundation
Spread footing is the one which supports either one
column or one wall. It is divided into following types

Single footing for a column

Stepped footing for a column
Wall footing without step
Stepped footing for wall
Grillage foundation

b) Strap footings
Independent footing of two columns are connected
by a beam.

Types of foundation
Cont.
c) Combined footing
A spread footing which supports two or more columns is
termed as combined footing type of combined footings
Rectangular combined footing
Trapezoidal combined footings
Combined column wall footings

d) Mat (Raft) foundation

A raft foundation is a combined footing that covers the
entire area beneath a structure and support all the walls
and columns.
Use of mat foundation
When an allowable soil pressure is low the building
loads are heavy mat foundation is economical to use.
Use to reduce settlement

Types of foundation
Cont.
2. Deep foundation
Deep foundations are those in which the
depth of the foundation is very large in
comparison to its width. They transfer the
superimposed load to the soil at a level that
is at a great distance from the lowest floor
Types of deep foundations
Pile foundation
pier foundation
well or caisson foundation

Types of foundation
Cont.
Pile foundation
Pile foundation is that type of deep foundation in
which loads are taken to low level by means of
vertical members which may be timber, concrete
or steel.
Pile foundation is used were
Soil condition is very poor
Water table is high
Area with heavy loads
Compressive soil
To ensure stability and durability

Types of foundation
Cont.
Types of piles
Friction piles
End bearing piles
Compaction piles
Tension pile or uplift pile
Sheet pile

Types of foundation
Cont.
> Friction piles
Are use to transfer load to the surrounding soil
by means of the friction between their
surfaces and the soil. It is used in deep beds
of clay and silt
> End bearing piles
Helps to transmit the loads to a greater depth.
Used to carry load through soft soil to a
suitable bearing stratum.
Compaction pile

Types of foundation
Cont.
Use of piles
Heavier loads and the top soil has poor bearing
capacity

To ensure stability and durability

High level of water table
In filling area
In compressible soil.

Materials used to make piles are

Concrete
Timber
Steel
Composite

Types of foundation
Cont.
Well foundation
Well foundation is the water tight box structure
of wood/ RCC/steel and mostly used in the
foundation of the bridges.
Purpose: to develop an enclosure below for
plumb and provide access shaft to reach a
deep tunnel transmitting the loads to hard
bearing strata.
Types of well foundations (Caissons)
Box caissons
Well foundation or open caissons- single,
double or cylindrical
Pneumatic caissons

Earthwork excavation of
foundations
Site Clearance
Before foundation is to be l aid it is necessary to
excavate the trench of required depth and width. It is
the process of clearing the site (where construction
work is to be carried out) of any existing structure,
truss, busters and any kind of disturbing elements
which may obstruct the construction work.
Site clearance work includes
Removal of busters and trees
Demolition of existing structure
Removal of top soil

Earthwork excavation of
foundations Cont.
Excavation in foundation is done either manually
with the help of conventional implements or with the
help of special equipment.
Conventional implement are
Spade
Pick axe
Rammer
Kassi
Cane basket etc
Excavating equipment are
Drag shovel

Earthwork excavation of
foundations Cont.
1. Earthwork in excavation in soft
soil
. In case of excavation of soft soil the
poling boards are placed closer to 90
cm apart and held by wailings
. In case of loose soil the sides of
trenches shall be supported by open
timbering
-. Stay bracing ( briefly explain with
figure)

Earthwork excavation of
foundations Cont.
2 Excavation in Hard soil
- If excavation is more than 1.5 timbering of trench
shall be done
3 Excavation in wet soil
By constructing drain
By constructing deep well
Well point system
Vacuum method
By chemical consolidation
Freezing process
Electro-osmosis

Excavation of trenches for Pipes,

Cables etc.
1. Trench Preparation
. Other services must be located in the area
of the pipeline before any work commence
. Other services were telephone conduits,
water mains, sewers, electrical conduits etc.
. Rout of the trench is allocated in the ground
by surveying and pegging
. The rout shall be made clear from
obstructions as bushes, small trees, stones
etc.

Excavation of trenches for Pipes,

Cables etc. Cont.
2. Trench width
The width of trench should be narrow
as possible in order to minimize
external load of soil and installation
costs
The trench width will be influenced
by soil condition, joining system and
location of joint
For pipe of dia. 16 to 63 mm the
width shall be 150 mm

Excavation of trenches for Pipes,

Cables etc. Cont.
3. Trench Depth
The depth of the trench shall provide
necessary grade to the pipeline,
depth of bedding material and
sufficient cover over the top of the
popes for adequate protection from
external load
For no loading condition the cover
over the crown of pipe shall be 300
mm

Excavation of trenches for Pipes,

Cables etc. Cont.
4. Bedding Material
The floor of the trench shall be trimmed even
and free from rocks and hard objects
In poor soil conditions, an additional layer of
imported bedding material shall be introduced
The bedding material used are sand/soil free
from rocks greater than 15 mm size
The bedding shall be free from organic
material
Minimum of 75 mm bedding shall be layed

Excavation of trenches for Pipes,

Cables etc. Cont.
5. Refilling Work
All filling shall be deposited in layers not
exceeding 20 cm loose depth
If work is of lesser extent lighter roller may be
permitted
All timbering and rubbish shall be removed the
excavation prior to back filling
The filler material shall be free from rocks,
vegetable matters, and contaminated materials
and all materials must have a maximum partical
size less than 75 mm.

Some common problems with

existing foundation
Settlement of foundation:
Settlement of foundation occurs due to
Consolidation of soil particles (due to super imposed
loads, compaction)
Reduction of moisture content (due to drying evaporation)
Heaving of soil
General earth movement (mining operations, earthquakes
etc)
Un-equal settlement of sub soil
Horizontal movement of soil adjoining the structure
Un-equal load distribution
Shrinkage due to withdrawal of moisture from soil

Some common problems with

existing foundation Cont.
Effects of unequal settlements:
Distortion of the structure
Cracks in structural and non-structural
components of building
Moisture movement through cracks
Failure of the structure
Prevention of unequal settlement
Proper foundation design
Proper soil investigation.