0

X-ray Production
The following slides identify atomic
structure, the forces at work inside the
atom, types of electromagnetic
radiation (including x-rays), x-ray
characteristics, components of an x-ray
machine and x-ray tube, how x-rays are
formed and ways to modify the x-ray
beam.
 0

In navigating through the slides, you should click

on the left mouse button when you see the
mouse holding an x-ray tubehead or you are
done reading a slide. Hitting “Enter” or “Page
Down” will also work. To go back to the previous
slide, hit “backspace” or “page up”.
 Atomic Structure 0

An atom is composed of electrons (with a negative

charge), protons (with a positive charge) and
neutrons (no charge). The protons and neutrons
are found in the nucleus of the atom and the
electrons rotate (orbit) around the nucleus. The
number of electrons equals the number of protons
in an atom so that the atom has no net charge
(electrically neutral). Different materials (for
example, gold and lead) will have different
numbers of protons/electrons in their atoms.
However, all the atoms in a given material will have
the same number of electrons and protons. (See
diagram next slide)
 Atom 0

This atom has 7 protons and 7 neutrons in the nucleus.

There are 7 electrons orbiting around the nucleus.

protons
neutrons
electrons
 0

The electrons are maintained in their orbits

around the nucleus by two opposing forces. The
first of these, known as electrostatic force, is
the attraction between the negative electrons
and the positive protons. This attraction causes
the electrons to be pulled toward the protons in
the nucleus. In order to keep the electrons from
dropping into the nucleus, the other force,
known as centrifugal force, pulls the electrons
away. The balance between these two forces
keeps the electrons in orbit.

(See next three slides)

 0
Electrostatic force is the attraction between the
positive protons and negative electrons. Electrons in
the orbit closest to the nucleus (the K-shell) will have
a greater electrostatic force than will electrons in
orbits further from the nucleus. Another term often
used is binding energy; this basically represents the
amount of energy required to overcome the
electrostatic force to remove an electron from its
orbit. For our purposes, electrostatic force and
binding energy are the same. The higher the atomic
number of an atom (more protons), the higher the
electrostatic force will be for all electrons in that
atom.
 0

Centrifugal force pulls the electrons

away from the nucleus
 0

EF CF

The balance between electrostatic force and

centrifugal force keeps the electrons in orbit
around the nucleus
 0

Electromagnetic Radiation
An x-ray is one type of electromagnetic
radiation. Electromagnetic radiation
represents the movement of energy through
space as a combination of electric and
magnetic fields. All types of electromagnetic
radiation, which also includes radiowaves, tv
waves, visible light, microwaves and gamma
rays, travel at the speed of light (186,000 miles
per second). They travel through space in
wave form.
 W 0

F=3
W

F=2

D
The waves of electromagnetic radiation have two
basic properties: wavelength and frequency. The
wavelength (W) is the distance from the crest of one
wave to the crest of the next wave. The frequency (F)
is the number of waves in a given distance (D). If the
distance between waves decreases (W becomes
shorter), the frequency will increase. The top wave
above has a shorter wavelength and a higher
frequency than the wave below it.
 0

radio tv visible x-rays gamma cosmic

waves waves light rays rays

Which of the above examples of electromagnetic

radiation has the shortest wavelength?
Cosmic rays
Which of the above has the lowest frequency?
Radio waves
 0
X-ray Energy

The energy of a wave of electromagnetic

radiation represents the ability to penetrate
an object. The higher the energy, the more
easily the wave will pass through the object.
The shorter the wavelength, the greater the
energy will be and the higher the frequency,
the greater the energy will be.
 0

A
B
C
Which of the above x-rays has the highest energy?
A: It has the shortest wavelength, highest frequency
 0
X-ray Characteristics

• X-rays are high energy waves, with very short

wavelengths, and travel at the speed of light.
• X-rays have no mass (weight) and no charge
(neutral). You cannot see x-rays; they are
invisible.
• X-rays travel in straight lines; they can not
curve around a corner.
• An x-ray beam cannot be focused to a point; the
x-ray beam diverges (spreads out) as it travels
toward and through the patient. This is similar
to a flashlight beam.
 0
X-ray Characteristics (continued)
• X-rays are differentially absorbed by the
materials they pass through. More dense
materials (like an amalgam restoration) will
absorb more x-rays than less dense material (like
skin tissue). This characteristic allows us to see
images on an x-ray film.
• X-rays will cause certain materials to fluoresce
(give off light). We use this property with
intensifying screens used in extraoral radiography.
• X-rays can be harmful to living tissue. Because of
this, you must keep the number of films taken to
the minimum number needed to make a proper
diagnosis.
 X-ray Equipment 0

2
1

X-ray equipment has three basic components:

(1) the x-ray tubehead, which produces the x-
rays, (2) support arms, which allow you to move
the tubehead around the patient’s head and (3)
the control panel, which allows you to alter the
duration of the x-ray beam (exposure time) and,
on some x-ray machines, the intensity (energy)
of the x-ray beam.
 X-ray 0

Tubehead

PID
(cone) degrees

The x-ray tubehead is attached to the support arms

so that it can rotate up and down (vertically;measured
in degrees) and sideways (horizontally) to facilitate
proper alignment of the x-ray beam. The PID (Position
Indicating Device) is attached to the x-ray tubehead
where the x-ray beam exits and it identifies the
location of the x-ray beam. Some people refer to the
PID as a “cone”; the PID’s on very old x-ray machines
used to be coneshaped.
 mA control 0

exposure time kVp control

The control panel, like the one above left, allows you
to change exposure time but nothing else. Some
machines, like the one above right, have controls for
changing the mA and kVp settings in addition to
exposure time. The individual controls will be
discussed more later.
 0

X-ray Tube

X-rays are produced in the x-ray tube, which is

located in the x-ray tubehead. X-rays are
generated when electrons from the filament
cross the tube and interact with the target. The
two main components of the x-ray tube are the
cathode and the anode.
 Cathode 0

Focusing
cup

Filament
(tungsten)
side view front view
(cross-section) (facing target)

The cathode is composed of a tungsten filament

which is centered in a focusing cup. Electrons are
produced by the filament (see next slide) and are
focused on the target of the anode where the x-rays
are produced. The focusing cup has a negative
charge, like the electrons, and this helps direct the
electrons to the target (“focuses” them; electrons
can be focused, x-rays cannot).
 Thermionic Emission 0

When you depress the exposure button, electricity

flows through the filament in the cathode, causing it to
get hot. The hot filament then releases electrons which
surround the filament (thermionic emission). The hotter
the filament gets, the greater the number of electrons
that are released. (Click to depress exposure button
and heat filament).

x-section
hot
of
filament
filament electrons
 0
side view front view

Anode
Target
Copper stem Target

The anode in the x-ray tube is composed of a

tungsten target embedded in a copper stem. When
electrons from the filament enter the target and
generate x-rays, a lot of heat is produced. The
copper helps to take some of the heat away from
the target so that it doesn’t get too hot.
 Line Focus Principle 0

The sharpness (detail) of images seen on a

radiograph is influenced by the size of the focal
spot (area in the target where x-rays are produced).
The smaller the focal spot (target), the sharper the
image of the teeth will be.

During x-ray production, a lot of heat is generated.

If the target is too small, it will overheat and burn
up. In order to get a small focal spot, while
maintaining an adequately large target , the line
focus principle is used.
 Line Focus Principle 0

Target
(Anode)
Cathode
Apparent (effective)
focal spot size
Actual focal
spot size
PID

The target is at an angle (not perpendicular) to the electron

beam from the filament (see above). Because of this angle,
the x-rays that exit through the PID “appear” to come from
a smaller focal spot (see next slide). Even though the
actual focal spot (target) size is larger (to withstand heat
buildup), the smaller size of the apparent focal spot
provides the sharper image needed for a proper diagnosis.
 Line Focus Principle
Actual focal spot size
(looking perpendicular
to the target surface; see
previous slide); the
length is indicated by
the white dotted lines
below.
PID
0
The target is at an angle to
the electron beam. If you
looked up through the PID at
this angled target, it would
“appear” to be smaller, as
seen above. Click to rotate
target and see altered size
(indicated by yellow dotted
lines).
Looking up at target
through open end of
PID
 X-ray Tube Components 0

4 6
3
2 5

1 7
8

1. focusing cup 6. copper stem

2. filament 7. leaded glass
3. electron stream 8. x-rays
4. vacuum 9. beryllium window
5. target
(for description, see next slide)
 X-ray Tube Components (continued) 0

1. Focusing cup: focuses electrons on target

2. Filament: releases electrons when heated
3. Electron stream: electrons cross from filament to
target during length of exposure
4. Vacuum: no air or gases inside x-ray tube that might
interact with electrons crossing tube
5. Target: x-rays produced when electrons strike target
6. Copper stem: helps remove heat from target
7. Leaded glass: Keeps x-rays from exiting tube in
wrong direction
8. X-rays produced in target are emitted in all
directions
9. Beryllium window: this non-leaded glass allows
x-rays to pass through. The PID would be
located directly in line with this window.
 0

Photo of an X-ray Tube

Beryllium Window Leaded glass

Target Focusing cup

(filament located inside)
 0

X-ray Machine
Components

X-ray
Control Panel Tubehead
110, 220 line Timer
Exposure switch
mA selector Step-down transformer
kVp selector Step-up transformer
Autotransformer X-ray Tube
Wires
Oil
 X-ray Machine Voltage 0

The x-ray machine is plugged into a 110-volt outlet

(most machines) or a 220-volt outlet (some
extraoral machines). The current flowing from these
outlets is 60-cycle alternating current. Each cycle is
composed of a positive and negative phase. X-rays
are only produced during the positive phase; the
target needs to be positive to attract the negative
electrons from the filament. During the positive
portion of the cycle, the voltage starts out at zero
and climbs to the maximum voltage before
dropping back down to zero and entering the
negative phase. Each complete cycle lasts 1/60 of a
second; there are 60 cycles per second.
(See next slide)
 0
voltage starts at zero and reaches
a maximum of 110 or 220 before
going back to zero

+ 110, 220
positive

- 110, 220
negative

target positive; target negative; target positive;

electrons flow no electron flow electrons flow
 0
Many machines now convert the alternating current
into a direct current (constant potential). Instead of
cycles going from zero to the maximum, both
positive and negative, the voltage stays at the
maximum positive value, creating more effective x-
ray production. This allows for shorter exposure
times.
60-cycle Alternating Current

Direct Current (Constant Potential)

 Timer 0

The timer controls the length of the exposure. The

black numbers above represent impulses. The red
numbers are seconds.
 0
With alternating current, there are 60 1/60 sec.
complete cycles each second; each
cycle represents an impulse and is 1/60
of a second. To change impulses into
seconds, divide the number of impulses
by 60. To convert seconds to impulses,
multiply by 60.

Number of Impulses
= seconds
60
Number of seconds X 60 = impulses
60 impulses/60 = 1 second
30 impulses/60 = 0.5 (1/2) second
15 impulses/60 = 0.25 (1/4) second

0.75 (3/4) second X 60 = 45 impulses

0.1 (1/10) second X 60 = 6 impulses
 0
There are two electrical circuits operating during an
x-ray exposure. The first of these is the low-voltage
circuit that controls the heating of the filament.
When the exposure button is depressed, this low
voltage circuit operates for ½ second or less to heat
up the filament. There are no x-rays produced during
this time. As you continue to depress the exposure
button, the high-voltage circuit is activated. This
circuit controls the flow of electrons across the x-ray
tube; during the positive portion of the alternating
current cycle, the negative electrons are pulled
across the x-ray tube to the positive target. X-rays
are produced until the exposure time ends. The
length of time the high-voltage circuit is operating
represents the exposure time. (See next slide).
 0

X-ray Exposure

1.
2.
5.
4. Depress
Activate
3. X-ray exposure
production
Electrons button
low-voltage
high-voltagecircuit
stops
cross tube, circuit
when
strike totoheat filament
pulland
exposure
target electrons across
x-raystube
time ends.
produce
Release exposure button
 0

Exposure Button

The timer determines the length of the

exposure, not how long you hold down the
exposure button; you cannot overexpose by
holding the exposure button down for an
extended period. However, you can
underexpose by releasing the exposure button
too soon; the exposure terminates as soon as
you release the button.
 milliAmpere (mA) selector 0

mA setting

The mA (milliAmpere) setting determines the

amount of current that will flow through the
filament in the cathode. This filament is very
thin; it doesn’t take much current (voltage) to
make it very hot. The higher the mA setting,
the higher the filament temperature and the
greater the number of electrons that are
produced.
 0
Step-Down Transformer

If the voltage flowing through the filament is too

high, the filament will burn up. In order to reduce
the voltage, the current flows through a step-
down transformer before reaching the filament.
The voltage reaching the step-down transformer
is determined by the mA setting. The step-down
transformer reduces the incoming voltage to
about 10 volts, which results in a current of 4-5
amps flowing through the filament.
 Step-Down Transformer 0

The current enters the step-down transformer on the

primary (input) side and exits on the secondary (output)
side. The fewer turns in the coil on the secondary side, the
lower the output voltage will be. The primary coil below
would have 110 turns, the secondary coil would have 10.
(Each loop of the coil is a “turn”; the number of turns in the
diagram below has been reduced for easier viewing).

Primary
current flow

110 volts
or less
current flow

10 volts

Secondary
 kiloVolt peak (kVp) control 0

kVp readout
kVp control knob

The kVp control regulates the voltage across the x-

ray tube. (A kilovolt represents 1000 volts; 70 kV
equals 70,000 volts. A 70 kVp setting means the peak,
or maximum voltage, is 70,000 volts). The higher the
voltage, the faster the electrons will travel from the
filament to the target. The kVp control knob regulates
the autotransformer (see next slide).
 Autotransformer 0

The autotransformer determines how much

voltage will go to the step-up transformer.
Basically, a transformer is a series of wire coils.
In the autotransformer, the more turns of the coil
that are selected (using the kVp control knob),
the higher the voltage across the x-ray tube will
be. This is similar to the function of a rheostat.
The following slide shows how this works. The
incoming line voltage will be 110 volts. The
exiting voltage will be 65 volts if the kVp control
is set at 65. The exiting voltage will be 80 volts if
the kVp setting is 80.
Autotransformer: if the
the setting
initial is changed
setting is 65; 65tovolts
80,0
80 volts
leave theleave the autotransformer.
autotransformer.

110 V
current flow

kVp
selector
65 volts
80
to step-up transformer
 0

Step-Up Transformer
The voltage coming from the autotransformer next
passes through the step-up transformer, where it is
dramatically increased. The ultimate voltage coming
from the step-up transformer is roughly a thousand
times more than the entering voltage. For example, if
you set the kVp control knob to 65, 65 volts will exit
the autotransformer. This 65 volts is increased to
65,000 volts by the step-up transformer. (The “k” in
kVp stands for one thousand; 65 kV is 65,000 volts).
The side of the step-up transformer where the voltage
enters (primary side) has far fewer turns in the coil
than the exit (secondary) side.
 Step-Up Transformer 0

The current enters the step-down transformer on the

primary (input) side and exits on the secondary (output)
side. The more turns in the coil on the secondary side, the
higher the output voltage will be. The secondary coil in the
step-up transformer has 1000 times as many turns as the
primary coil. (Again, the number of turns has been reduced
for easier viewing).

Primary
current flow

65-90 volts
current flow

65,000 to
90,000 volts
Secondary
The relationship of the various x-ray machine components0
are shown in the diagram below. They form the high-voltage
and low-voltage circuits. For a more detailed review of the
components, see next slide.

kVp

110 volts
10 volts filament
65,000 to
90,000 volts
 While
The
When keeping
x-rays
the pass
exposurethe exposure
through
button the
is button depressed,
filter and
depressed, collimator
the current the
can
The
The length
x-ray of the exposure
machine is pluggedis selected
into the with the timer.
electrical 0
high-voltage
before
flow intoexiting
the circuit
through
x-ray is activated
the This
tubehead. to pullfor
PID. activates
(Click thenext
the slide)
low-
outlet (110
electrons volts
from usually).
the filament
voltage circuit which heats theto the target,
filament; producing
this lasts for ½
x-rays.(Click
second (Clicktotodepress
produce x-rays).button).
exposure

oil

filament filter

exposure
button
The tubehead is filled with oil which surrounds the 0

transformers, x-ray tube and electrical wires. The primary

function of the oil is to insulate the electrical
components. It also helps to cool the anode and, as we
will discuss later, it helps in filtration of the x-ray beam.
The barrier material prevents the oil from leaking out of
the tubehead but still allows most x-rays to pass through.

Step-up
Trans

oil
barrier
material

Step-down
Trans
 0

X-ray Production
There are two types of x-rays produced in the
target of the x-ray tube. The majority are called
Bremmstrahlung radiation and the others are
called Characteristic radiation.
 0
Bremsstrahlung Radiation
(Also known as braking radiation or general
radiation)
Bremmstrahlung x-rays are produced when high-
speed electrons from the filament are slowed
down as they pass close to, or strike, the nuclei of
the target atoms. The closer the electrons are to
the nucleus, the more they will be slowed down.
The higher the speed of the electrons crossing the
target, the higher the average energy of the x-rays
produced. The electrons may interact with several
target atoms before losing all of their energy.
 0
Bremsstrahlung X-ray Production

Electron slowed
down by positive
charge of
nucelus; energy
released in form
High-speed
electron from + of x-ray

filament enters
tungsten atom

Electron continues on in
different direction to interact
with other atoms until all of its
energy is lost
 Bremsstrahlung X-ray Production 0

Maximum energy

+
High-speed electron
from filament enters
tungsten atom and
strikes target, losing
all its energy and
The x-ray produced has energy
disappearing
equal to the energy of the
high-speed electron; this is the
maximum energy possible
 0

Characteristic Radiation
Characteristic x-rays are produced when a high-
speed electron from the filament collides with an
electron in one of the orbits of a target atom; the
electron is knocked out of its orbit, creating a
void (open space). This space is immediately
filled by an electron from an outer orbit. When the
electron drops into the open space, energy is
released in the form of a characteristic x-ray. The
energy of the high-speed electron must be higher
than the binding energy of the target electron
with which it interacts in order to eject the target
electron. Both electrons leave the atom.
Characteristic Radiation (continued) 0

Characteristic x-rays have energies “characteristic” of

the target material. The energy will equal the difference
between the binding energies of the target electrons
involved. For example, if a K-shell electron is ejected
and an L-shell electron drops into the space, the
energy of the x-ray will be equal to the difference in
binding energies between the K- and L-shells. The
binding energies are different for each type of material;
it is dependent on the number of protons in the nucleus
(the atomic number).

K-shell

L-shell

M-shell
 0

Characteristic X-ray Production

Electron in L-shell X-ray with 59

drops down to fill Ejected
keV electron
of energy
vacancy in K-shell leaves atom
produced. 70
(binding
energy of K-
vacancy shell electron)
M minus 11
High-speed electron
L (binding
with at least 70 keV K energy of L-
of energy (must be shell electron)
more than the = 59.
binding energy of k-
shell Tungsten atom)
Recoil electron
strikes electron in
(with very little
the K shell, knocking
energy) exits
it out of its orbit
atom
 X-ray Spectrum 0

An x-ray beam will have a wide range of x-ray energies;

this is called an x-ray spectrum. The average energy of
the beam will be approximately 1/3 of the maximum
energy. The maximum energy is determined by the kVp
setting. If the kVp is 90, the maximum energy is 90 keV
(90,000 electron volts); the average energy will be 30. As
shown below, characteristic x-rays contribute a very
small number of x-rays to the spectrum.
# of x-rays

characteristic
x-rays
(59 & 67 keV)
Bremmstrahlung
x-rays

X-ray energy (keV)

 X-ray Spectrum (continued) 0

The x-ray spectrum results from three

factors:
(1) the varying distances between the
high-speed electrons and the
nucleus of the target atoms
(2) multiple electron interactions. The
high-speed electrons keep going
until all energy is lost.
(3) varying voltage. With an alternating
current, the speed of the electrons
will change as the voltage changes.
The higher the voltage, the faster
the electrons will travel. This is not
a factor when the newer constant
potential x-ray units are used.
 0
X-ray production is a very inefficient process. Only
1% of the interactions between the high-speed
electrons and the target atoms result in x-rays. 99
% of the interactions result in heat production. The
excess heat is controlled by the high melting point
of the tungsten target, the conductive properties of
the copper sleeve and the cooling from the oil
surrounding the x-ray tube.

heat
 0

X-ray Beam Modifiers

The following slides identify the various ways

of changing the energy of the x-ray beam and
the number of x-rays produced during an x-ray
exposure.
 Exposure Factors 0

The energy of the x-ray beam and the number

of x-rays are primarily regulated by the kVp
control, the mA setting and the exposure time.
One, two or all three of these exposure factors
may need to be adjusted, depending on the
size of the patient’s head, the likelihood of
patient movement due to tremors or the
inability to hold still, etc.. If the exposure
factors are not set properly for the current
patient, the resultant film may be too light or
too dark (see next slide).
 0

Exposure factors too high

(too dark)

Correct exposure factors

Exposure factors too low

(too light)
 kVp (kilovolt peak) 0

The kVp primarily controls the energy or

penetrating quality of the x-ray beam. The higher
the kVp, the higher the maximum energy and the
higher the average energy of the beam. A higher
kVp allows the x-ray beam to pass through more
dense tissue in a larger individual, resulting in a
more acceptable radiographic image. In addition
to increasing penetrating ability, a higher kVp will
also result in the production of more x-rays.
Because of this, an increase in kVp will allow for a
decrease in exposure time, which may be helpful
in children or in adults with uncontrolled head
movement.
 0
kVp (kiloVolt peak)
In switching from 70 kVp to 90 kVp, the average
energy increases (dotted lines below), the maximum
energy increases (from 70 keV to 90 keV) and the
number of x-rays increases. (Click to change from
70 kVp to 90 kVp).
Number of X-rays

90 kVp

70 kVp

70 90
X-ray Energy (keV)
 mA (milliampere) 0

The mA setting determines the heating of the filament.

The hotter the filament, the more electrons that are
emitted; the more electrons crossing the x-ray tube, the
greater the number of x-rays that result. There is no
change in the average energy or maximum energy of the
x-ray beam. Doubling the mA setting results in twice as
many x-rays. (Click to change from 5 mA to 10 mA).
Number of X-rays

10 mA (twice as many x-rays)

5 mA

maximum energy
(no change)

average energy X-ray Energy

(no change)
 Exposure Time 0

An increase in exposure time will result in an

increase in the number of x-rays. Doubling the
exposure time doubles the number of x-rays
produced. Exposure time has no effect on the
average or maximum energy of the x-ray beam.
(Click to change exposure time from 5 impulses
to 10 impulses).
Number of X-rays

10 impulses
(twice as many x-rays)
5 impulses

maximum energy
(no change)

average energy X-ray Energy

(no change)
 mAs or mAi 0

mAs = milliamperes (mA) x seconds (s)

mAi = milliamperes (mA) x impulses (i)
All x-ray machines have an mA setting (may be fixed or
variable) and an exposure time setting (always variable) for
each radiograph taken. The product of the mA setting times
the exposure time equals mAs or mAi, depending on whether
the exposure time is in seconds or impulses. As long as the
mAs remains constant for a given patient size, the x-ray
output will remain the same. For example, if the mA setting is
5 and the exposure time is 30 impulses, the mAi would be 150
(5 times 30). If we change the mA setting to 10 and decrease
the exposure time to 15, the mAi is still 150 (10 times 15).
There will be no change in the number of x-rays. If an x-ray
machine has variable mA settings, increasing the mA will
allow for a decrease in exposure time; this will be
advantageous in most cases.
 In the following situations, would you expect the x-ray0
film to be (A), overexposed, (B) correctly exposed or
(C) underexposed? (No change in patient size).

1. Recommended kVp, mA, exposure time (e.t.) B

2. Increase mA; no change in kVp, e.t. A
3. Decrease e.t.; no change in kVp, mA C
4. Increase kVp; no change in mA, e.t. A
5. Double mA, halve e.t.; no change in kVp B

A B C

overexposed correct exposure underexposed

 Filtration 0

Low-energy x-rays do not contribute to the formation

of an x-ray image; all they do is expose the body to
radiation. Therefore, we need to get rid of them. The
process of removing these low-energy x-rays from
the x-ray beam is known as filtration. Filtration
increases the average energy (quality) of the x-ray
beam.
There are two components to x-ray filtration. The
first of these, called inherent filtration, results from
the materials present in the x-ray machine that the x-
rays have to pass through. These include the
beryllium window of the x-ray tube, the oil in the
tubehead and the barrier material that keeps the oil
from leaking out of the tubehead. This removes very
weak x-rays.
 Filtration (continued) 0

The second component is the addition of aluminum

disks placed in the path of the x-ray beam (added
filtration). These disks remove the x-rays that had
enough energy to get through the inherent filtration but
are still not energetic enough to contribute to image
formation.
Disks of varying thicknesses, when combined with the
inherent filtration, produce the total filtration for the x-
ray machine. Federal regulations require that an x-ray
machine capable of operating at 70 kVp or higher must
have total filtration of 2.5 mm aluminum equivalent. (The
inherent filtration is “equivalent” to a certain thickness
of aluminum). X-ray machines operating below 70 kVp
need to have a total filtration of 1.5 mm aluminum
equivalent.
 Filtration 0

Aluminum filter (s)

Added

beryllium window
Total
of x-ray tube Oil/Metal barrier

Inherent

beryllium
barrier
window PID
material

oil

filter collimator
 0

PID

The filter is usually

located in the end of
the PID which attaches filter
to the tubehead.
 Collimation 0

Collimation is used to restrict the area of the head that the

x-rays will contact. We want to cover the entire film with
the x-ray beam, but don’t want to overexpose the patient.
Also, when x-rays from the tubehead interact with the
tissues of the face, scatter radiation is produced (see
below). This scatter radiation creates additional exposure
of the patient and also decreases the quality of the x-ray
image. (Scatter will be discussed in greater detail in the
section on biological effects of x-rays).

primary x-ray

scattered x-ray
 Collimation 0

The collimator, located in the end of the PID where

it attaches to the tubehead, is a lead disk with a
hole in the middle (basically a lead washer). The
size of the hole determines the ultimate size of the
x-ray beam. The shape of the hole will determine
the shape of the x-ray beam.

You are looking up through the

PID at the collimator (red arrows),
which is a circular lead washer
with a circular cutout in the
middle. This will produce a round
x-ray beam. The light gray area in
the center is the aluminum filter.
 Collimation 0

The shape of the opening

in the collimator
determines the shape of
round the x-ray beam. The size
of the opening
determines the size of the
beam at the end of the
PID. PID’s come in
varying lengths; longer
PID’s have a smaller
opening in the collimator.
rectangular
The x-ray beam continues Collimation 0

to spread out as you get

further from the x-ray
collimated
source (target). More beam
collimator
surface is exposed on the
exit side of the patient
than the entrance side. By
collimating the beam, less
overall surface is exposed
and as a result, less
scatter radiation is
produced. Both of these
things reduce patient
exposure. 2.75 inches (7 target
(x-ray source)
cm) is the maximum
diameter of a circular
beam or the maximum
length of the long side of a
rectangular beam at the
end of the PID.
 7 cm Collimation 0

6 cm

If you switch from a 7 cm

6 cm round
round PID to a 6 cm
round PID, the patient
receives 25% less
film radiation because the
(4.5 cm long)
area covered by the
beam is reduced by 25%.
entrance
Rectangular collimation
entrance
exit
(dotted line at left)
exit results in the patient
receiving 55 % less
area covered at skin surface (6 cm round PID) radiation when compared
area covered as beam exits (6 cm round PID) to what they would
area covered at skin surface (7 cm round PID) receive with a 7 cm
area covered as beam exits (7 cm round PID)
round PID.
The quality, or average energy, of the x-ray beam 0is
increased with an increase in kVp or an increase in
filtration. The quantity, or number of x-rays, is
increased with an increase in kVp, mA setting and
kVp setting.
Quality Quantity
kVp (primarily)

mA no change

Time no change

Filtration

Collimation does not change the energy or number of

x-rays in the x-ray beam that reach the film; it just
limits the size and shape of the beam.
 0

Inverse Square Law

The x-ray beam spreads out as it moves away

from the target (focal spot, source, focus),
covering a larger area and diluting the effects
of the x-ray beam in a given area. The farther
you get from the target , the weaker the x-ray
beam will be. The inverse square law is a
formula used to identify the strength (intensity)
of the x-ray beam at a given distance from the
target. (See next slide).
 Inverse Square Law

The formula above shows that the intensity of

radiation varies inversely as the square of the
target-film distance. D represents distance, KI is
the known intensity (x-ray beam strength) and UI
is the unknown intensity. If you know the intensity
at one distance, you can compute the intensity at
any other distance by using the formula. (See
example on following slide).
 Inverse Square Law 0

2
D KI
X KI = UI
D UI
1* X 100 = 1
The intensity of the beam at 1 ft. is 100
100 (KI). What is the intensity of the
beam at 10 ft. (UI)? The distance of
known intensity (DKI ) is 1. The * 2
distance with unknown intensity (DUI ) 1 1
= 100
is 10. Using the formula, as seen at 10
right, the unknown intensity is found
to be 1.
 Inverse Square Law 0

The inverse square law also works by looking at the

magnitude of change in the distance. In the diagram
below, the distance D2 is 2 times the distance of D1. The x-
ray beam covers 4 squares at D1 and 16 squares at D2, or
four times as many; the intensity is ¼ as much because
the beam is spread out over four times as many squares.
The change in distance is two times; the square of 2 is 4
and the inverse of 4 is ¼. If the change in distance is 3
times as much, calculate as
follows: the square of 3 is
9,
and the inverse is 1/9. The
intensity at three times the
distance would be 1/9 what
it was at the initial distance.
 0

This concludes the section on X-ray

Production.

Additional self-study modules are available

at: http://dent.osu.edu/radiology/resources.htm

If you have any questions, you may e-mail

me at: jaynes.1@osu.edu

Robert M. Jaynes, DDS, MS

Director, Radiology Group
College of Dentistry
Ohio State University