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Three Levels of Analysis

Grammar: putting words together with
punctuation as the glue
Syntax: structure of larger units of
discoursephrase, sentence, paragraph,
section, essay
Semantics: meaningfrom the level of the
individual word to the discourse as a
whole

Meaning determines
grammar, punctuation, and
syntax on every level.

Article Use: A/AN versus The

versus No Article
An apple a day keeps the doctor away.
Mountains are beautiful.
The mountains in the western part of the state are
beautiful.

What are the semantic differences between

the subjects of these sentences?

Article Use
The semantics of article use revolves
around the basic distinction between the
general/abstract and the specific/concrete
An apple = any one apple; can be counted;
concrete but not specific
Mountains = all existing mountains in general;
cannot be counted; abstract but
not specific
The mountains = a group of mountains existing
in one location; can be counted;
concrete and specific

Article Use
Article choice makes a big semantic
difference!
Lymphochip is the name given to a
microarray developed by Lou Staudt and colleagues.
Lymphochip is the name given to the
microarray developed by Lou Staudt and
colleagues.

What does a imply in sentence 1?

The in sentence 2?

Article Use
Article use makes a big semantic
difference!
The library has room for readers. room = space
The library has a room for readers. room = a
specific, circumscribed location,
usually inside a building
Like room, many nouns have several distinct
meanings. Articles help signal which meaning is
appropriate in a given context.

Article Use
Some special categories of nouns do not
require the indefinite article
Abstractions*: democracy, education, equality
Emotions: anger, love, confidence, respect, hostility
Natural substances/events: air, blood, oxygen, rain
Categorical nouns, which refer to many objects under
one designation: clothing, furniture, equipment, garbage
Fields of study: architecture, biology, literature, chemistry
*Some abstractions can be used concretely: Democracy
is one political system; The U.S. is a democracy

Subject-Verb Agreement
Identify the sentences in which the subject
and verb disagree in number (singular
versus plural)
Either the twins or Jim is waiting near the gate.
Neither Jim nor the twins is waiting near the gate.
There are no contingencies we have not considered.
The primary support mechanism for most graduate students are
fellowships.
Fellowships are most graduate students primary
support mechanism.

Subject-Verb Agreement
The tight semantic relationship between the
grammatical subject and the grammatical verb
constitutes the core meaning of the sentence.
A singular subject requires a singular verb.
Plural subjects require plural verbs.
Lack of agreement between subject and verb
results in semantic disjunctionthe sentence
falls apart on the most fundamental level of
meaning.

Subject-Verb Agreement
The Key Strategy

Identify the noun or pronoun that acts as the

grammatical subject of the sentence

Determine whether that subject is singular

or plural

Subject-Verb Agreement
Unusual or complex syntactic constructions
can make identifying the grammatical
subject tricky!
Inverted word order:
What is our main priority?
What are our priorities?
Among the investigators presenting papers was Dr.
Shosh Segal.
The grammatical subject is followed by a subordinate
noun or pronoun that differs in number:
A very large number of people passes through the Clinical
Center every day, even every hour.
Constantly running in circles keeps me busy.

Subject-Verb Agreement
Unusual or Complex Syntactic
Constructions
Conflicts in number between subject and predicate nouns:
A prime requirement in any experimental scenario is carefully
controlled conditions.
Carefully controlled conditions are a prime requirement in
any experimental scenario.
Multiple subject nouns linked by and, either/or, neither/nor:
One man and three women are walking by.
Three women and one man are walking by.
Either three women or one man is walking by.
Either one man or three women are walking by.
Neither three women nor one man is walking by.
Neither one man nor three women are walking by.

Subject-Verb Agreement
Determining the number of indefinite
pronouns can be tricky too!
Group 1always singular
anybody, somebody, nobody, everybody
anyone, someone, everyone
anything, something, everything, nothing
one, no one
each, either, neither
much
none* * This one is the real killer!
None of these options is bad. [Of these options, none is bad.]
No one knows the trouble Ive seen.
Each of these alternatives is bad.
Much is expected, but little is realized.

Subject-Verb Agreement
Indefinite Pronouns
Group 2always plural
both
few
many
several
Many are called, but few are chosen.
Several are planning to leave their e-mail addresses
after the lecture ends.
Both are agreeable to me. [Contrast to: Neither is
agreeable to me.]

Subject-Verb Agreement
Indefinite Pronouns
Group 3singular or plural depending on context
all
any
more
most
some
All of the money is in the groups bank account.
All of the funds are in the groups bank account.
More [of anything] is always better than less.
More [postdocs] have been unhappy working with that principal
than have been happy.

Subject-Verb Agreement
Nouns that are plural in form but
singular in meaning are
the trickiest of all!
This class of nouns requires a singular verb.
semantics
news
economics
politics
statistics
wages
genomics
proteomics
metabolomics
Economics is known as the dismal science; statistics is its
handmaiden.
Special case: Measurements and figures ending in
s take a singular verb when the quantity to
which they refer is a unit.

Three years is a long time.

Three-fourths of the library consists of journals.

That versus Which

Affymetrix, which manufactures gene chips, is
located in California.

A company that manufactures gene chips is sending

representatives to the National Cancer Institute (NCI).

What is the semantic difference

between these two sentences?

That versus Which

That introduces a subordinate clause essential
to the meaning of the sentence.
Which, with commas, introduces a subordinate
clause NOT essential to the meaning of the
sentence.
A Two-Step Test
Identify the element.
Remove the elementdoes the fundamental
meaning of the sentence change or become
less precise?

That versus Which

THE TEST
Analyze these sentence pairs
Affymetrix, which manufactures gene chips, is
located in California.
Affymetrix is located in California.
A company that manufactures gene chips is
sending representatives to the National Cancer
Institute.
A company is sending representatives to the
National Cancer Institute.

That versus Which

Choosing that instead of which radically changes
the meaning of the same basic sentence.
The schools that educate our children should
be supported.
The schools, which educate our children, should
be supported.

What is the semantic difference between

these two sentences?

That versus Which

Punctuation Point: Comma Use
Commas indicate that a subordinate clause is
NOT essential to the meaning of the
sentence.
Never use a comma with clauses introduced by
that.
Always use commas with clauses introduced by
which.
Using commas with phrases introduced by who
varies, depending on meaning.

That versus Which

Punctuation Point: Comma Use
Analyze the meaning of these sentence pairs*:
He who hesitates is lost.
He, who hesitates, is lost.
Janet Smith, who works in Dr. Barretts lab, lives
next door.
The Janet Smith who works in Dr. Barretts lab lives
next door.
Who is used only for persons; that and
which for objects, animals, emotions, concepts, eventsanything
nonhuman

Finale
Almost all sentences involve several
grammatical issues simultaneously!

It is microbial components that stimulate dendritic cells to

mature.
Grammatically AND semantically defective versions

It is [are] the microcrobial components, which

stimulate the dendritic cells to mature.
Microbial components is what stimulates the dendritic
cells to mature.

Grammar Resources
Books
Grammar handbooks:
The Little, Brown Handbook, 8th ed. New York: Little, Brown,
2001

ESL guides:
The Oxford Advanced Learners Dictionary, 6th ed. Oxford:
Oxford University Press, 2000.

Style guides:
W. Follett, Modern American Usage: A Guide. New York: Hill &
Wang, 1984.
W. Strunk, E.B. White. The Elements of Style, 4th ed. New
York: Longman, 2000.

Grammar Resources
Courses
The Foundation for Advanced Education in the
Sciences (FAES) offers:
Engl 305Advanced English Structure I
Engl 306Advanced English Structure II
Each course examines the grammar, syntax, and
semantics of extended discourse; stresses
vocabulary building; and offers writing practice.

I would like to thank the members

of the Fellows Editorial Board for
their invaluable assistance in
preparing this presentation.
--Kay Fleming, Ph.D.