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Characteristics
Ulemj Damiran
Introduction
Measurements
U voltmeter
I ammeter
t clock
A=U*I*t
3
Classification of physical
quantites
mass
Measurements main
equation
Y y [Y ]
What is instrument
An example is ruler
Simple Instrument
Model
Physical
Measurement
Variable
Measurement
SENSOR
Measurand
X
Physical
Process
Signal
Variable
M
Display
Simple Instrument
Model
Common physical variables
Force
Voltage
Length
Current
Temperature
Acceleration
Velocity
Pressure
Frequency
Capacity
Resistance
Time
Simple Instrument
Model
Measurand
Analog
Signal
Variable
AMPLIFIER
SENSOR
X
Physical
Process
Analog
Signal
Variable
Digital
Signal
Variable
A/D
Converter
Computer
Memory
Output
Sensors
Sensors can be
categorized into two
broad classes
Passive sensors
Active sensors
10
Passive Sensors
Active Sensors
An example of an active
sensor is a radar or sonar,
where actively out-sended
radio (radar) or acoustic
(sonar) waves reflect off of
some object and thus
measures its range from the
sensor
Physical
Process
X1
Instrument
s
SENSOR
1
S1
X2
SENSOR
2
S2
X3
SENSOR
3
S3
SENSOR
FUSION
Examples:
1. Sensor output relation to the ambient temp is taken account
during the measurements
2. Image synthesis where radar, optical, and infrared images can be
combined into a single enhanced image
13
Operational Modes of
Instrumentation I
(Null instrument)
Null Instrument - A
measuring device that
balances the measurand
against a known value,
thus achieving a null
condition. Two inputs are
essential to the null
instrument.
Null instrument
Advantages:
Minimizes measurement loading errors
(i.e. alter the value of the measured signal).
Effective when the measurand is a very
small value.
minimizes interaction between the
measuring system and the measurand, by
balancing the unknown input against a
known standard input
Achieving perfect parity (zero condition) is
limited only by the state of the art of the
circuit or scheme being employed
Disatvantages:
Slow - an iterative balancing operation
requires more time to execute than simply
measuring sensor input. Not suitable for
fast measurements i.e. only for static
measurements
15
Potetntiometer
Operational Modes of
Instrumentation II
(Deflection instrument)
Advantages:
high dynamic response i.e. can be used for fast measurements
can be designed for either static or dynamic measurements or
both
Disadvantages:
by deriving its energy from the measurand, the act of
measurement will influence the measurand and change the
value of the variable being measured. This change is called a
loading error.
17
18
Analog sensor
21
Digital sensor
Analog Readout
Instruments
An analog readout
instrument provides an
output indication that is
continuous and directly
analogous to the behavior
of the measurand
For example
deflection of a pointer
or an ink trace on a
graduated scale
Digital Readout
Instruments
24
E2
Z
Input Impedance
E
P
Z
25
E 2 E1
1 Z1 / Z 2
Calibration
27
Systematic
error
(bias)
Random
error
(precision)
Correct terms
decides the
discrimination
Better precision i.e.
better repeatability
Better
accuracy i.e.
Mean value
closer to
bullseye
30
Reading measurements by
human observer common
error source is parallax i.e.
reading dial from nonnormal angle
31
Invasivness - example
Reducing invasivness
Extreme invasiveness
large warm
thermometer to
measure the
temperature of a
small volume of cold
fluid
32
Periodical calibration
In order to prevent
systematic errors, sensors
should be
periodically
recalibrated
33
Transmission
Noise
N3
Sensor
Noise
N2
N1
AMPLIFIER
SENSOR
Physical
Process
A common example of N3 is 50 Hz
interference from the electric power
grid
SNR(dB)=10*log(Psignal/Pnoise)
34
Random noise
Estimating the
measurement accuracy
E =(measured) - (true)
where
36
What is uncertainty?
Uncertainty of measurement is a
parameter that describes the distribution
of the (thinkable) measured values
Classification of
uncertainties
uB(x)
uC u A2 u B2
Expanded
Where k is uncertainty
the coveragefactor, typically in range 2-3
38
How to estimate
uncertainties?
f (x x)
exp
2
( x x )2
2 x2
0.9
0.8
0.7
-1
_
x
f (x) [mm
_
x - x
0.6
_
x + x
0.5
0.4
0.3
_
x - 2x
0.2
0.1
_
x + 2x
_
x + 3x
_
x - 3x
0
75.2 75.5 75.7 75.9 76.2 76.4 76.7 76.9 77.1 77.4 77.6 77.9
x [mm]
variance
39
How to estimate
uncertainties II?
Standard deviation
x
( x1 xt ) ( x2 xt ) ( xn xt )
( xi xt ) 2
i 1
sx
( x1 x ) ( x2 x ) ( xn x )
n 1
( xi x ) 2
i 1
n 1
Wherex
is the mean value and sx experimental
standard deviation
and
x lim s x
n
40
How to estimate
uncertainties III?
s
sx
i 1
n(n 1)