Fundamentals of Geotechnical

Engineering

Lecture Outline
Topics for discussion
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.

Origin of Soils
Three Phase Diagram
Important Terms
Phase Relationships
Atterberg limits
Bearing Capacity

Origin of Soils

The final products

weathering are soils.

due

to

Types of Soils
(1)

(2)
(3)
(4)
(5)
(6)

Glacial

soils: formed by transportation and

deposition of glaciers.
Alluvial soils: transported by running water and
deposited along streams.
Lacustrine soils: formed by deposition in quiet lakes
(e.g. soils in Taipei basin).
Marine soils: formed by deposition in the seas (Hong
Kong).
Aeolian soils: transported and deposited by the wind
(e.g. soils in the loess plateau, China).
Colluvial soils: formed by movement of soil from its
original place by gravity, such as during
landslide (Hong Kong). (from Das, 1998)

Three Phases in Soils

S : Solid

Soil particle

W: Liquid
A: Air

Water (electrolytes)
Air

PHASE DIAGRAM
For purpose of study and analysis, it is convenient to
represent the soil by a PHASE DIAGRAM, with part of the
diagram representing the solid particles, part
representing water or liquid, and another part air or
other gas.

Volumetric Ratios
(1)

Void ratio e
Volume of voids Vv
e

Volume of solids Vs

(2) Porosity n%
V
Volume of voids
n
v 100
Total volume of soil sample Vt
Dry

Saturated

(3) Degree of Saturation S% (0 100%)

Total volume of voids contains water Vw
S
100%
Total volume of voids
Vv

Weight Ratios

(1) Water Content w%

Ww
Weight of water
w

100%
Weight of soil solids Ws

Soil unit weights

(1) Dry unit weight

Weight of soil solids Ws

Total volume of soil

Vt

(2) Total, Wet, Bulk, or Moist unit weight

Total weight of soil

W Ww
s
Total volume of soil
Vt

(4) Submerged unit weight

' sat w

(3) Saturated unit weight (considering S=100%, Va

=0)

sat

Weight of soil solids water Ws Ww

Total volume of soil

Vt

Note: The density/or unit weight are ratios which connects the
volumetric side of the PHASE DIAGRAM with the mass/or
weight side.

Engineering Applications (e)

Hydraulic conductivity
Which packing (SC or CT)
has
higher
hydraulic
conductivity?

SC
e = 0.91

CT
e = 0.65

The fluid (water) can flow more easily through the

soil with higher hydraulic conductivity
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Engineering Applications (e)(Cont.)

Filter
SC
e = 0.91

Clogging

The finer particle cannot pass

through the void

CT
e = 0.65

14

Specific gravity,
Gs
The ratio of the weight of solid particles to the
weight of an equal volume of distilled water at 4C

ws
Gs
Vs w
i.e., the specific gravity of a certain material is ratio of
the unit weight of that material to the unit weight of
water at 4o C.
The specific gravity of soil solids is often needed for
various calculations in soil mechanics.

s
Gs
w

Gw = 1
Gmercury = 13.6

Relationships Between Various Physical Properties

All the weight- volume relationships needed in soil
mechanics can be derived from appropriate
combinations of six fundamental definitions. They
are:
1.Void ratio
2.Porosity
3.Degree of saturation
4.Water content
5.Unit weight
6.Specific gravity

1. Relationship between e and n

Using phase
diagram
Given
:e
required: n

Vv
e
n
Vt 1 e

e
1+e
1

2. Relationship among e, S, w, and Gs

ww wVw
wVw
Vw
w

ws sVs wGsVs GsVs

Dividing the denominator and numerator of the R.H.S.
by Vv yields:

Se wGs
This is a very useful relation for solving THREE-PHASE
RELATIONSHIPS.

3. Relationship among , e, S and Gs

W Ww Ws wVw sVs wVw wGsVs

V
Vs Vv
Vs Vv
Vs Vv
( Se Gs )

w
1 e
Notes:

Unit

weights for dry, fully saturated and

submerged cases can be derived from the upper
equation
Water content can be used instead of degree of
saturation.

Various Unit Weight

Relationships

Method to solve Phase Problems

Method : Memorize relationships

Se wGs

e
n
1 e

( Se Gs )

w
1 e

d
1 w

Example 1

Example 2
Field density testing (e.g., sand replacement method) has
shown bulk density of a compacted road base to be 2.06
t/m3 with a water content of 11.6%. Specific gravity of the
soil grains is 2.69. Calculate the dry density, porosity, void
ratio and degree of saturation.

Example 3

In its natural state, a moist soil has a total volume of 9344.56 cm3
and a mass 18.11 kg. The oven-dry mass of soil is 15.67 kg. If Gs =
2.67, calculate the moisture content, moist unit weight, void ratio
and degree of saturation.

25

Relative
Density
The relative density is the parameter that compare the

volume reduction achieved from compaction to the

maximum possible volume reduction

The

relative density Dr, also called density index is

commonly used to indicate the IN SITU denseness or
looseness of granular soil.

Volume reduction from compaction of granular soil

can be expressed either in terms of void

ratios or dry densities.
r

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Remark
s

The

range of values of Dr may vary from a

minimum of zero for very LOOSE soil to a maximum
of 100% for a very DENSE soil.

Because of the irregular size and shape of granular

particles, it is not possible to obtain a ZERO volume
of voids.

 Granular

soils are qualitatively described

according to their relative densities as shown
below

The use of relative density has been restricted to

granular soils because of the difficulty of

determining emax in clayey soils. Liquidity Index in
fine-grained soils is of similar use as Dr in granular
soils.

ATTERBERG LIMITS
Liquid limit test:
A soil is place in the grooving tool which consists of
brass cup and a hard rubber base. A groove is cut at the
center of the soil pat using a standard grooving tool. The
cup is then repeatedly drooped from a height of 10 mm
until a groove closure of 12.7 mm. The soil is then
removed and its moisture content is determined. The soil
is said to be at its liquid limit when exactly 25 drops are
required to close the groove for a distance of 12.7 mm (
one half of an inch)

30

 Plastic limit test:

A soil sample is rolled into threads until it becomes thinner and

eventually breaks at 3 mm. it is defined as the moisture content
in percent at which the soil crumbles when rolled into the
threads of 3.0 mm. If it is wet, it breaks at a smaller diameter; if
it is dry it breaks at a larger diameter.

Shrinkage limit test:

It is performed in the laboratory with a porcelain dish

approximately 45 mm in diameter and about 12.7 mm high. The
dish is completely filled with wet soil. The mass and volume of
the wet soil is then recorded. The dish is then oven dried, then
the mass and volume of the oven dried soil is also recorded.

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34

Bearing Capacity Of
Shallow Foundation

35

Bearing Capacity Of Shallow Foundation

* A foundation is required for distributing the
loads of the superstructure on a large area.
* The foundation should be designed
such that
a) The soil below does not fail in shear &
b) Settlement is within the safe limits.

36

Basic Definitions :
1)Ultimate Bearing Capacity (qu) :
The ultimate bearing capacity is the gross
pressure at the base of the foundation at which soil
fails in shear.
2)Net ultimate Bearing Capacity (qnu) :
It is the net increase in pressure at the base of
foundation that cause shear failure of the soil.
Thus, qnu = qu Df (ovrbruden pressure)

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3) Net Safe Bearing Capacity (qns) :

It is the net soil pressure which can be
safely applied to the soil considering only
shear failure.
Thus, qns = qnu /FOS
FOS - Factor of safety usually taken as 2.00
-3.00
4) Gross Safe Bearing Capacity (qs) :
It is the maximum pressure which the soil
can carry safely without shear failure.
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5)Net Safe Settlement Pressure (qnp) :

It is the net pressure which the soil can carry without
exceeding allowable settlement.
6)Net Allowable Bearing Pressure (qna ):
It is the net bearing pressure which can be used for
design of foundation.
Thus,
qna = qns
; if qnp > qns
qna = qnp
; if qns > qnp
It is also known as Allowable Soil Pressure (ASP).

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Modes of Shear Failure

General shear
Dense soils,
Rock, NC clays
Defined failure surf.
Fast failure

Local shear
Intermediate case
+/- gradual failure

Punching
Loose sands,
weak clays (dr.)
F. surf. not defined
Gradual failure
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General Shear failure

Strip footing resting on surface

Load settlement curve

of dense sand or stiff clay

* The load - Settlement curve in case of footing resting on surface of dense sand
or stiff clays shows pronounced peak & failure occurs at very small stain.
* A loaded base on such soils sinks or tilts suddenly in to the ground showing a
surface heave of adjoining soil
* The shearing strength is fully mobilized all along the slip surface & hence
failure planes are well defined.
* The failure occurs at very small vertical strains accompanied by large lateral
strains.
* ID > 65 ,N>35, > 360, e < 0.55
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2) Local Shear failure -

Strip footing resting on surface

Load settlement curve

Of Medium sand or Medium clay

* The foundation movement is accompanied by sudden jerks.
* The failure surface gradually extend out wards from the foundation.
* The failure starts at localized spot beneath the foundation & migrates
outward part by part gradually leading to ultimate failure.
* The shear strength of soil is not fully mobilized along planes & hence
failure planes are not defined clearly.
* The failure occurs at large vertical strain & very small lateral strains.
* ID = 15 to 65 , N=10 to 30 , <30, e>0.75
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3) Punching Share failure -

* The loaded base sinks into soil like a punch.

* The failure surface do not extend up to the ground surface.
* No heave is observed.
* Large vertical strains are involved with practically no lateral
deformation.
* Failure planes are difficult to locate.
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Terzaghis Bearing Capacity Analysis

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Terzaghis Bearing Capacity Theory

Terzaghi developed the theory for continuous foundations
(simplest, 2D problem).

qult c' N c ' zD N q 0.5 ' BN

From model tests, he expanded the theory to:

qult 1.3c' N c ' zD N q 0.4 ' BN

qult 1.3c' N c ' zD N q 0.3 ' BN

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Terzaghis Bearing Capacity Theory

Nc = cohesion factor
Nq = surcharge factor
N = self wt factor
= fn () See table for values

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General Shear
Failure

Local Shear Failure

Nc

Nq

Nr

Nc

Nq

Nr

5.7

1.0

0.0

5.7

1.0

0.0

15

12.9

4.4

2.5

9.7

2.7

0.9

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172.3

173.3

297.5

51.2

35.1

37.7
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Effect of water table on Bearing Capacity :

groundwater

affects
Shear strength
by
1. Reduction in apparent cohesion - cap (sat. soil for lab tests)
2. Decrease in

48

Effect of water table on Bearing Capacity :

* The equation for ultimate bearing capacity by
Terzaghi has been developed based on assumption
that water table is located at a great depth .
* If the water table is located close to foundation ;
the equation needs modification.

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i) When water table is located above the base of footing

-

* The effective surcharge is reduced as the

effective weight below water table is
equal to submerged unit weight.
q = Dw. sub +x.sub
put x = Df-Dw
q = sub Df +( - sub)Dw

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Thus,
qu = cNc + [sub Df +( - sub )Dw] Nq + 0.5 sub BNr
When, Dw =0
qu =cNc + sub Nc + 0.5 sub BNr
& when x = 0
qu = cNc + Df Nq + 0.5 sub BNr
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ii) When water table is located at depth y below

base

* Surcharge term is not affected.

* Unit weight in term is = sub +

y ( sub)
B

Thus,
qu = cNc + Df Nq + 0.5B Nr
When y = B ; W.T. at B below base of footing.
qu = cNc + Df Nq + 0.5 B Nr
Hence when ground water table is at b B, the equation is not affected.

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