Binary Transmission

BIT
Is a contraction of the term binary digit
A unit of information represented by either a 1
or 0

BIT RATE / DATA RATE

The number of 0s and 1s that pass on a
communication channel each second
Transmission rate in bits per second

BIT ERROR RATE

A measure of data connectivitys performance
Often the unit of measurement is bit error rate
(BER), which is probability of error
A BER of 1 in 105 means that there is a
probability of one error will occur for every
100,000 bits

Binary Information Codes

Types of Characters
Data Link Control Characters
-used to facilitate the orderly flow of
data from a source to a destination

Graphic Control Characters

-involve the syntax or presentation of
the data at the received terminal

Alphanumeric Characters
-used to represent the various symbols
used
for
letters,
numbers,
and
punctuation in the English language

Binary Information Codes

Data Communication Codes

-character sets or character languages

Binary Information Codes

MORSE CODE
the first data communication code with
three unequal length symbols.
Table of Morse Code

Binary Information Codes

BAUDOT CODE
the first fixed-length character code. It is a
5 bit character code, with a start bit and a
1.5 stop bits

Jean-Maurice-Emile
Baudot

Binary Information Codes

AMERICAN STANDARD CODE FOR

INFORMATION
INTERCHANGE
(ASCII)
it uses 7 bits of
information, an 8th bit
for use as parity, a start
bit and two stop bits

Binary Information Codes

EXTENDED
BINARY
DECIMAL INTERCHANGE
(EBCDIC)
the true 8 level code

CODE
CODE

Binary Information Codes

CCITT ALPHABET NO. 5 CODE

a 7 bit character set which has 27 or 128
codes
also with a parity bit

CCITT ALPHABET NO. 2 CODE

character length similar to Baudot code
but without start and stop bits

Binary Information Codes

HOLLERITH CODE
consist of 12 bits information with the
12th bit for parity.

Herman Hollerith

Binary Transmission Conventions

PARALLEL TRANSMISSION
bits are transmitted character at a time
i.e.
eight
bits
are
transmitted
simultaneously over eight wires.
an additional wire called strobe or clock
lead notifies the receiver unit that all
the bits are present on their respective
wires so that the voltages on the wires
can be sampled.

Binary Transmission Conventions

SERIAL TRANSMISSION
bits are transmitted over a single line
one bit at a time
used when the cost of the
communication medium is high

PARALLEL AND SERIAL TRANSMISSION

Synchronization on Digital Signals

ASYNCHRONOUS
transmission in which time intervals
between transmitted characters may be
of unequal length
transmission is controlled by start and
stop bits at the beginning and end of
each character

Synchronization on Digital Signals

SYNCHRONOUS
transmission in which data are sent at a
fixed rate, with the receiver and
transmitter synchronized
synchronized transmission eliminates
the need for start and stop bits

Synchronization on Digital Signals

ISOCHRONOUS
a combination of asynchronous and
synchronous transmission
the data are clocked by a common
timing base, and bytes are also framed
with start and stop bits

Digital Transmission Modes

SIMPLEX
data transmission is unidirectional
information can be sent only in one
direction
simplex lines are also called receiveonly, transmit-only, or one-way only
lines

Digital Transmission Modes

HALF DUPLEX (HDX)

data transmission is possible in both
directions but not at the same time
HDX lines are also called two-way
alternate or either way lines

Digital Transmission Modes

FULL-DUPLEX (FDX)
data transmission is possible in both
directions at the same time but they
must be between the same two stations
FDX lines are also called two-way
simultaneous, duplex, or both-way lines

Digital Transmission Modes

FULL/FULL DUPLEX (F/FDX)

data transmission is in both directions at
the same time but not the same two
stations
F/FDX is possible only on multipoint
circuits

Types of Data Circuits

TWO-WIRE CIRCUIT
it involves a transmission medium that
either uses two wires (a signal and a
reference lead or a configuration that is
equivalent to having only two wires
simplex, HDX, or FDX transmission is
possible

Types of Data Circuits

FOUR-WIRE CIRCUIT
it involves a transmission medium that
uses four wires (two are used as signals
that are propagating in opposite
direction and two are used for reference
leads) or a configuration that is
equivalent to having four wires

Types of Data Circuits

SWITCHED CIRCUIT
in telephone network, a call is
automatically switched through its
destination after dialing has been
completed.

Types of Data Circuits

LEASED CIRCUIT
a permanent circuit used for private use
within a communication network with
the line directly between two locations
or routed through a central office

Voice Channel Transmission Impairments

AMPLITUDE DISTORTION
distortion caused by the variation of
transmission loss with frequency

Voice Channel Transmission Impairments

PHASE DISTORTION
is the resultant of different velocities
of
propagation
at
different
frequencies across the voice channel.

Voice Channel Transmission Impairments

NOISE
it is a spurious or extraneous signal that
interferes with the wanted signal.

Voice Channel Transmission Impairments

CROSSTALK
it is defined as the undesired energy
appearing in one signal path as a
result of coupling from another signal
path

Voice Channel Transmission Impairments

ECHO
it is the return of talkers voice or other
end-user signal

SINGING
it is the result of sustained oscillations
due to positive feedback in amplifying
circuits

Digital Modulation Techniques

Digital Modulation Techniques

1. AMPLITUDE SHIFT KEYING

-two (2) power levels (high and low)
are to represent 1 or 0 based on
amplitude (1-high; 0-low)

Digital Modulation Techniques

2.

FREQUENCY
(FSK)

SHIFT

KEYING

-binary states are represented by two

different frequencies
-a simple, low performance digital
modulation

Digital Modulation Techniques

3. PHASE SHIFT KEYING

-there is a phase reversal of 180 to
indicate change in state from 0 to 1 or
vice versa

Digital Modulation Techniques

3.a BINARY PHASE SHIFT KEYING

(BPSK)
-two output phases are possible for a
single carrier frequency (1 & 0)
-as the input signal changes state, the
phase of the output carrier shifts between
2 angles that are 180

Digital Modulation Techniques

3.b QUADRATURE
KEYING (QPSK)

PHASE

SHIFT

- four (4) possible pair of bits are

represented by 4 different phases of the
carrier

Digital Modulation Techniques

QUADRATURE
AMPLITUDE
MODULATION (QAM)
-digital information is contained in both
the amplitude and phase of the
transmitted carrier.

Error Detection and Correction Techniques

ERROR DETECTION
The process of monitoring the received
data and determining when a transmission
error has occurred.

Error Detection

1. REDUNDANCY
-involves transmitting each character
twice. If the same character is not
received 2x in succession, an error has
occurred
-retransmission of the entire message
is very inefficient, because second
transmission of a message is 100%
redundant

Error Detection

2. PARITY-CHECK (50% detection)

-the simplest error detection scheme
-used
for
data
communications
systems and with both vertical and
horizontal redundancy checking
-with parity, a single bit is added to
each character to force a total number of
1s in the character, including the parity
bit, to be either an odd (odd parity) or
even number (even parity)

Error Detection

EVEN PARITY
Bias bit = logic 0
> a 1 indicates an error, 0 means no
error

Error Detection

ODD PARITY
Bias bit = logic 1
> a 1 indicates no error, 0 means
there is no error

Error Detection

&
HORIZONTAL
VERTICAL
REDUNDANCY CHECK (95-98%
detection)
-a parity bit is added to each character
to force the total number of 1s in the
character including the parity bit, to be
either an odd number (odd parity) or an
even number (even parity)

Error Detection

2.a VERTICAL REDUNDANCY

CHECKING (VRC)
-an error detection scheme that uses
parity to determine if a transmission error
has occurred within a character
-VRC is XORing of the bits within a
single character

CHARACTER PARITY
-each character has a parity added to it
prior to transmission

Error Detection

2.b HORIZONTAL / LONGITUDINAL

REDUNDANCY CHECKING
(HRC OR LRC)
an error-detection scheme that uses
parity to determine if an error has
occurred in a message (message parity)
with LRC, each bit position has a parity bit
LRC is the result of XORing the characters
that make up a message and only even
parity is used. The bit sequence of an LRC
is often called Block Check Sequence
(BCS)
VRC bit for each character is computed in
the vertical direction, LRC bit is computed
in horizontal direction

Error Detection

3. EXACT COUNT ENCODING

- the number of 1s in each character is the
same

4. ECHOBACK / ECHOPLEX
- a character is sent back to the operator for
the operator to check errors
- mode of transmission that achieves less than
full-duplex but more than half-duplex
- achieved by having the answer DTE
retransmit (echo) the received message back
to the originating DTE for decoding and display

Error Detection

5. CYCLIC
(CRC)

REDUNDANCY

CHECK

- most reliable scheme for error detection;

99.95 % of errors are detected
- it is generally used with 8 bit codes such
as EBCDIC or 7 bit codes without parity
- the CRC character is the remainder of a
division process using an XOR operation. If
no transmission occurred, the remainder
will be zero.
- the number of bits in CRC code is equal
to the highest exponent o the generating
polynomial. The exponent identifies the
bit positions that contain a 1.

Error Correction

1. SYMBOL SUBSTITUTION
-designed to be used in a human
environment at the receiver
-a reverse question mark is substituted
for bad character

2. RETRANSMISSION / AUTOMATIC
REQUEST
FOR
RETRANSMISSION (ARQ)
-resending a message when it is
received in error. The received terminal
automatically calls for retransmission of
the entire message
-optimal ARQ message blocks = 256 to
512 characters

Error Correction

3. FORWARD ERROR CORRECTION

- the only error correction scheme that
actually detects and corrects
transmission errors at the receive end
without calling for retransmission of the
entire message
- bits are added to the message prior
to transmission

Error Correction

R. W. HAMMING CODE
The most popular correcting code
Developed by R. W. Hamming at Bell Labs
The number of bits in a Hamming code is
dependent on the number of bits in the
data character,

2n m + n +1
Where:

m = no. of bits in the data

character
n = no. of Hamming bits

Levels of Synchronization

1. BIT
OR
SYNCHRONIZATION

CLOCK

- identifies the start / beginning and

stop / end of each bit transmitted
- it ensures that the transmitter and
receiver agree on a precise time slot for
the occurrence of the bit
- it allows the receive DTE to know
when to sample the incoming bit stream
- Fast or slow bit sampling rate result to
errors

Levels of Synchronization

2. CHARACTER SYNCHRONIZATION
- identifies start and stop of each
individual character transmitted

3. BLOCK
OR
SYNCHRONIZATION

MESSAGE

- addresses the start and stop of large

amounts of data

4. MODEM
OR
SYNCHRONIZATION

CARRIER

- performed between modems so that

the received signals may be properly
demodulated

EIA Standards for Digital Interfacing

RS 232C (V.24 CCITT Equivalent)

It is an interface between the DTE (Data
Terminal Equipment) and DCE (Data
Communications Equipment) employing
serial binary data interchange
It is a first level protocol standard as well
as an electrical standard specifying
handshaking and functions between the
DTE and DCE
Transmission rate is 20 kbps for a distance
not more than 50 ft.; load impedance at
terminator side is between 3000 to 7000
ohms

EIA Standards for Digital Interfacing

RS 422A
It defines electrical characteristics of
balanced-voltage digital interface circuits.
It is a differential balanced voltage
interface standard capable of significantly
higher data rates over long distances.
It can accommodate 100 kbps over a
distance of 4000 ft (1200 m) or rates up to
10 Mbps over a maximum distance of 40 ft
(12 m)

EIA Standards for Digital Interfacing

RS 423A
It defines electrical characteristics of
unbalanced-voltage
digital
interface
circuits
Single-ended, bipolar and unterminated
voltage circuit like RS 232C
It extends the distance and data rate
capabilities to distances up to 4000 ft
(1200 m) at a data rate of 3 kbps or at
higher data rates of up to 300 kbps over a
maximum distance of 40 ft (12 m)

EIA Standards for Digital Interfacing

RS 357
It defines interface between Facsimile
Terminal Equipment and VF Data Terminal
Equipment

RS 366 A (V.25 CCITT Equivalent)

It defines interface between DTE and
Automatic Calling Equipment for Data
Communications

EIA Standards for Digital Interfacing

RS 408
It recommends the standardization of the
two interfaces between the numerical
control equipment (such as tape reader)
and the serial-to-parallel converter with
less than 40 ft (12 m) distance.

EIA Standards for Digital Interfacing

RS 449 (V.35 CCITT Equivalent)

It is general-purpose 37-position and 9position interface for DTE and DCE
employing serial binary data interchange.
It offers greater immunity to noise and
increase the data signaling rate to 2 Mbps
and permits an increase up to 200 m in
the length of the interconnecting cable.

CCITT X-Series for Digital Interfacing

X.21
Interface
between
DTE
and
Data
Terminating Equipment for Synchronous
operation on Public Data Networks

X.24
List of Definitions for Interchange Circuits
between Data Terminal equipment and
Data Terminating Equipment on Public
Data Networks

CCITT X-Series for Digital Interfacing

X.25
Interface between DTE and DCE for
Terminals Operating in the Packet Mode on
Public data Networks.
It is a standard protocol for interfacing a
terminal to packet network.
Defines the architecture of three levels of
protocols existing in the serial interface
cable between a packet mode terminal
and give away to a packet network.

Digital Interfacing

Centronics Parallel Interface

Designed by Centronics Computer data
Corporation for use with their line of printers
36 pins

IEEE 488 Bus

General Purpose Interface Bus
Hewlett Packard Interface Bus
Used in connecting printers to mini and
micro-computer systems
Interface for the remote control of and data
acquisition from test instruments (24 pins)