Ethical Theory

Consequentialism versus
Non-consequentialism

Consequentialism Consequences
alone determine whether an option is
morally correct.

non-consequentialism Consequences
never determine whether an option is
morally correct.

Utilitarianism
Founders are Jeremy Bentham and John
Stuart Mill.
One of the first purely secular ethical
theories.
It has deeply influenced economics and
political science.

Utilitarianism
(Consequentialism)

Two parts:
Theory

of intrinsically valuable
pleasure, satisfaction of desire, etc.
Principle of right action: Choose the
action of those available which has the
best consequences

Utilitarianism

Example:
Suppose

I am a train operator and I notice

someone on a train track who I cannot
alert of the oncoming train. If I divert the
train, then many will die but if I dont then
the one will die. Which should I do?

Utilitarianism -- problems
Too demanding!
Too much calculation!
Incommensurability!
Doesnt fit our moral convictions!

Deontology

Immanuel Kant (17241804) argued morality is

founded on reason and that it always was
contrary to reason to break a moral rule.

Moral obligations take the form of categorical

imperatives not hypothetical imperatives.

You should do y, period.

If want x, then you should do y.

Deontology

The Categorical Imperative:

Act only according to a rule which can be

consistently be willed as a universal law.

Kingdom of ends:

Always treat a rational agent as an end and

never treat a rational agent as merely a
means.

Deontology

Thus, if you want to know if an act if

morally permissible, then:
Ask

what rule (maxim) you would be

following if you were to take that action.

Ask

whether everyone could follow that

rule all the time. If so, then it would be
a universal law and thus the act is
permissible; otherwise, it is not.

Deontology

Promising: Suppose Joe needs to borrow some

money but cannot honor that promise. What is he
to do?

First, the relevant rule is:

Promise to repay regardless of whether you can

repay it.

Could this rule become a universal law?

No. It would be self-defeating. If this became a

universal practice, then no one would believe such
promises and so no one would provide the loans.

Deontology - Problems

Kant wrote that lying in any

circumstances is the obliteration of ones
dignity as a human being.
We

should do only those actions that

conform to rules that we could will to be
adopted universally. If we were to lie, we
would be following the rule It is
permissible to lie. This rule could not be
adopted universally, because it would be
self-defeating: people would stop believing
one another, and then it would do no good
to lie. Therefore, we should not lie.

Deontology - Problems

During WWII, Dutch fisherman smuggled Jewish

refugees in their boats. Nazi patrol boats would
stop them and ask where they were going and
who was aboard. It appears that we have a
genuine moral conflict between two rules.

It is wrong to lie.
It is wrong to facilitate the murder of innocent
people.

Kantian sometimes claim this is simply moral

tragedy but are these are they equally wrong?

Is this form of absolutism plausible?

Virtue Ethics

Aristotle argued that the primary

question of moral philosophy is:

What sort of person should I be?

Any moral theory that takes the

first question as primary is a
virtue-ethical theory.

Virtue Ethics

Virtues have three features:

They are a relatively fixed trait of character or

mind.
They typically involve a disposition to think, act,
or feel in certain ways in certain circumstances.
They are the primary basis for judging the
overall moral goodness or worth of a person.

The virtues are character traits that are

cultivated they are not something that one is
born with. We learn what is good or bad, right or
wrong in virtue of (no pun intended) observing
virtuous individuals act, feel, and behave.

Virtue Ethics

Aristotle argued that all human activities have

some purpose or end. But what is the purpose of
human life?

He argued that the purpose of human life must

several characteristics:

It is an end for which all other ends are pursued,

It is pursued for itself,
It is never pursued as a means for any other
end.

Aristotle argued that eudaimonia or human

flourishing (happiness) is the end of human life.

Virtue Ethics - Problems

An action is right just in case it is what

a virtuous agent would,
characteristically, do in the
circumstances.

How does one know what to do in a

particular circumstance?
What makes a virtue good?
Is there an essential human nature or
stable characters?