Introduction to Research

JN Junnile S. Paat, RN, MHSS

Review of Related
Literature
Covers literature done on the topic
and expounds on the context and
background of the problem
It helps further define the problem
Provide empirical bases for
hypotheses

Literature may come from:

Books
Monographs
Journal and periodical articles
Masters theses and doctoral dissertations
Government reports
Unpublished manuscripts
CD-ROMs
Internet
Online databases / Electronic Journals
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Guidelines in writing the

Rev.Lit:
Cite only the studies pertinent to the

specific issues and avoid tangential

and very general studies.
Summarize related studies, avoid nonessential details and emphasize major
findings and methodological issues.
Show the logical continuity between
previous studies and your research.
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 Present controversial issues fairly, e.g.

state that one set of studies supports
one conclusion while another set
supports another conclusion.
Synthesize coherently and
systematically
Always reference properly. If you use
another persons words or ideas, give
the person credit with a citation.
(Go,S. 2003)

Methodology
Recounts exactly what the researcher

did.
Informs the reader in sufficient detail how
the study was conducted
*so that others may replicate the study
*evaluate the appropriateness of the
methods used
*check the reliability of the results
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The methodology includes the

following:
Research design
Setting / Locale of the study
Population and Sampling technique
Instrumentation
Data gathering procedure
Data analysis
Methodological Limitations
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Research Design
Refers to the plan of attack. The
research design answers these
questions:

What approach to the problem was

taken?
What was the purpose of the study?
What methods were used?
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Setting / Locale of the Study

The physical location and conditions

in which data collection takes place
in a study

Population and Sampling

Describes the group from which the

sample is drawn, the method of
sampling, and the rationale for the
sampling method used.

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Population
Is the entire aggregate of cases in
which a researcher is interested.
The entire set of individuals (or
objects) having some common
characteristics

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Sample
Is a subset of population elements
Group of units chosen from the
sampling frame to be studied

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Element
Is the most basic unit about which
information is collected
Also known as sampling unit

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Sampling Frame

Is a list of all the units in the

population from which the sample is
to be drawn

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Strata
Stratum is a mutually exclusive
segment of a population, established
by one or more characteristics
Strata are often used in sample
selection process to enhance the
samples representativeness
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Sampling Bias
Refers to the systematic overrepresentation or underrepresentation of some segment of
the population in terms of a
characteristics relevant to the
research question
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Eligibility Criteria
The criteria that specify the

characteristics of a given population.

Sometimes it is referred as inclusion /
exclusion criteria

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The eligibility criteria may be

reflective of the following
issues:

Costs

Practical concerns
Peoples ability to participate in a study
Design consideration
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SAMPLING DESIGNS
PROBABILITY
NON-PROBABILITY

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Probability Sampling
Involves random selection in choosing

the elements
Researchers can specify the probability
that each element of the population
will be included in the sample
Greater confidence can be placed in
the representativeness of probability
samples
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Non-Probability Sampling
Elements are selected by non-random
method
There is no way to estimate the
probability that each element has of
being included in a non-probability
sample.
Usually, every element does not have
a chance for inclusion.

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Types of Non-Probability
Sampling
Convenience Sampling (Accidental,
snowball / chain sampling)

Quota Sampling
Purposive Sampling
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Convenience Sampling
Entails using the most conveniently

available people as study participants

*Snowball sampling (network / chain

sampling) early sample members are
asked to identify and refer other
people who meet the eligibility criteria.
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Quota Sampling
The non-random selection of

participants in which the researcher

specifies the characteristics of the
sample to increase its
representativeness.

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Purposive Sampling
Also referred to as judgmental sampling
Based on the belief that researchers

knowledge about the population can be

used to hand-pick sample members
Selected subjects are chosen because
they are judged to be typical of the
population or particularly knowledgeable
about the issues under the study.

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PROBABILITY SAMPLING
Involves the random selection of
elements from a population

Random sampling involves a selection

process in which each element in the
population has an equal, independent
chance of being selected.

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Probability Sampling
Methods
Simple Random sampling
Stratified random sampling
Cluster sampling
Systematic sampling
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Simple Random sampling

Gives every unit in the population an
equal chance of being chosen using
any one of the following methods:
- Table of random numbers
- computer generated selection
process
- drawing of lots

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Stratified Sampling
The population is divided into non-

overlapping (i.e. mutually exclusive)

groups (strata) of units that have
something in common (e.g. age or
sex) and a random sample is chosen
from each group.

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Cluster Sampling
This involves selecting clusters or

groups for study such as classes in a

school or hamlets in a geographical
area.

*Primary sample = actual respondents

*Secondary sample = second level type
of sample
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Stratified vs. Cluster

sampling
Stratified sampling
- Units are selected

Cluster sampling
- A random selection

from each stratum

or group
Representation of
samples are
homogenous

of strata or groups
is taken
Representation of
samples are
heterogeneous

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Stages of Cluster Sampling

One stage cluster sampling
- all elements of the selected cluster
are included in the sample e.g. all
students in a selected school would
be included in the survey

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 Two-stage cluster sampling

- A random sample of clusters is
taken and followed by a random
sample of units from within the
cluster e.g. in each school selected, a
random sample of students is taken

33

 Multi-stage cluster sampling

- more complex sampling technique
with several levels of sampling e.g. a
random sample of provinces may be
taken followed by a sample of
villages and then a sample of
households
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Systematic Random
sampling
Selecting a unit between 1 and k (where k

= population size over sample size) and

then every kth unit from a sampling frame
N
Kth= -----n

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Sample Size
Descriptive = 10-20% of the population
Correlational = 30 subjects
Ex-post facto = 15 subjects
Experimental = 15-30 (30-60) per group
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Instrumentation
Refers to the process of developing
and using research instruments
necessary for data gathering.
- questionnaires
- tests
- interview guides
- observation schedule

37

Sources of Instruments
Professional journals format / styles
Books actual description
Other researchers
Self-made instruments
38

Guidelines in Developing
Instruments:
Must be suitable for its function
Must be able to test the hypothesis /
answer the problem of the study
Reliable
Valid
Free of bias and prejudices
Free of built-in clues avoid leading
questions

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Characteristics of Quantitative
data instruments:
1. Validity = convincing and well-

grounded degree to which the

instrument measures what is
suppose to measure
2. Reliability = degree of consistency
obtained using the same instrument
3. Usability = practicality (financial,
scoring, interpretation)
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4. Objectivity = two or more researcher

will get the same results
5. Sensitivity = Identify characteristics /
attributes of specific area evaluated
6. Simplicity = Should be clear to avoid
errors
7. Meaningfulness = substantial and
applicable to general population
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Types of Validity
VALIDITY : is the degree to which an
instrument measures what is
suppose to measure
1. Face validity
2. Construct validity
3. Criterion-Related validity
a. Predictive validity
b. Concurrent validity
4. Content validity
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Face Validity
Refers to whether the instrument

looks as though it is measuring the

appropriate construct
Inspecting the instrument to see if it
contains important items
Assessment of the tool using a panel
of experts
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Construct Validity
Degree to which an instrument measure
hypothetical traits.
Key construct validity questions are:
What is this instrument really
measuring?
Does it adequately measure the
abstract concept of interest?
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Criterion-Related Validity
Involves determining the

relationships between an instrument

and an external criterion
The instrument is said to be valid if it
scores correlate highly with scores on
the criterion

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Predictive Validity
Refers to the adequacy of an

instrument in differentiating between

peoples performance on some future
criterion
The ability of the results of the scale
to actually predict what it intends to
predict
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Concurrent Validity
Refers to an instruments ability to

distinguish individuals who differ on a

present situation
The degree of correlation of scale scores
with the scores of other, well-validated
measures of the same variables
(administered at the same time) provides
an estimate of concurrent validity.
(Higginbotham, Albrecht, Connor, 2001)

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Content Validity
Is achieved when the scale is made
up of a well-balanced sample of
items mapping the content domain
for the variable.

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RELIABILITY
Is the consistency with which it

measures the target attribute

Also concerns a measures accuracy
The less variation an instrument
produces in repeated measurements,
the higher its reliability

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Types of Reliability
1. Test of Stability
2. Test of Equivalence
3. Test for Internal Consistency
4. Test for Item Analysis
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Test of Stability
The stability of an instrument is the extent
to which similar results are obtained on
two separate administrations
An assessment of an instruments stability
involves procedures that evaluate testretest reliability
The comparison is performed objectively
by computing a reliability coefficient
(correlation coefficient) which is a numeric
index of the magnitude of the tests
reliability
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Test of Stability
The possible values for a correlation coefficient
range from -1.00 through 0.00 to +1.00
(+) relationship = ( )
( - ) relationship = ( )
(0.00) no relationship

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Test of Equivalence
The degree to which two instruments

when tested will yield same results

a.) Alternate form use of paper and
pencil test in which similar questions
are given to measure the same trait
(ex. Yes/no, True / false)
b.) Inter-rater (inter-observer) reliability
similarity in the results of observation
made by two researchers; used when
the design calls for observation
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Test for Internal Consistency

Degree to which the subparts of the
instrument are all measuring the
same attributes or dimension
*Split-half technique / odd-even
reliability
Formulas: Spearman Brown prophecy
Cronbachs alpha

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Test for Item Analysis

Satisfactoriness of the statement as

far as its inclusion in the given scale

uses different methods in collecting
data.

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Data Collection Methods

1. Self Reports
2. Observation
3. Biophysiologic Measures

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DATA GATHERING PROCEDURE:

Includes all the details of the data-

gathering task. The procedure should

be written as a detailed discussion to
enable other researchers to replicate
the method.
(Go, S. 2001)

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Data Presentation:
Tabular
Textual
Graphical

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Tabular presentation of Data

Table 3. Changes in Elderly Womens Daily Activities
Changes in activity
Dont feel tired to work
before
Feel lazy to do
household chores
Having more time to
relax / join civic
organizations
No changes at all
More active when
younger
Being free from
parental responsibility
Visual problems
Just confined at home

Ever-married
5

Never-married
4

Total
9

2
1

2
1

1
1

1
1

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Textual Presentation of Data

As far as c hanges in activity are concerned, nine out of 19 key informants stated that
they did not experience feeling tired while working when they were in their younger
years. Two women reported that they were lazy to d o household chores. This
condition is attributed to the feeling of weakness among elderly women. Having more
time to relax and to join civic organization is viewed to be a positive change in the
daily activity of the two key informants. Two key informants reported that no changes
have taken place in their daily activities. Being free from parental responsibility was
regarded to be a positive effect of aging among the ever-married. One key informant
stated:
Idi, haan ko maaramid dagit i agwaywaya ta idi gamin ket babassit
da pay dagiti annak koket haan ko met ida mapana wan. Ket tatta t a
dadakkel dan a ket na waywaya na kon. Kasla nasisiyaat tattan.
(Before, I was not that free to do what I want because I was still taking
care of my young children. But now, theyre adults. I can say that Im
free of responsibility. My life is somehow better than before.)

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Graphical Presentation of
Data
90
80
70
60
East
West
North

50
40
30
20
10
0

1st Qtr

2nd Qtr

3rd Qtr

4th Qtr

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DATA ANALYSIS
Presents the statistical design used
(if applicable) and the method of
analysis done by the researcher

Quantitative Data Analysis

Qualitative Data Analysis
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Quantitative Data Analysis

Descriptive Statistics
(Averages, Percentage)

Inferential Statistics
(Laws of Probability, hypothesis
testing)
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STATISTICAL ANALYSIS
LEVELS OF MEASUREMENT
Measurement - assignment of numbers to represent
the amount of attribute present in an object according
to rules
Nominal data: used to classify objects or numbers
according into categories
e.g. gender (1 Male 2 Female), hair color, marital
status
Ordinal data: used to show relative ranking of objects
or events on an attribute
e.g. (3)self-assisted, (2)partially assisted, (1)totally
assisted
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 Interval data: shows ranking of events or

objects on a scale with equal intervals
between the numbers. Zero point remains
arbitrary and not absolute
e.g. Scholastic Assessment Test,
Fahrenheit temperature scale, O does not
mean absence of temperature
Ratio: shows ranking of events on scales
with equal intervals and absolute zeros
e.g. weight 200 lbs is twice as heavy as
100 lbs.
all arithmetic operations are permissible

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Descriptive Analysis
To describe and synthesize data obtained
1. Frequency Distribution arrangement of scores fr.
highest to lowest (or lowest to highest) and the no. of
times the value was obtained
2. Measures of Central Tendency
Mean computing average; point at which the sum of
deviation is 0; equal to the sum of scores divided by
the no. of scores
Median - counting average; point in the numerical
scale above which and below which 50% of the cases
fall
Mode inspecting average; most popular value
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3. Measures of Variability scattering

of scores; the extent to which scored
deviate from the mean

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Qualitative Data Analysis

Grounded Theory Analysis
Phenomenological Analysis
Ethnographic Analysis

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Grounded Theory Analysis

Concept of Fit - Identifying

characteristics of one piece of data

and comparing them with the
characteristics of another datum.

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Glasser and Strauss

Open Coding

Approach

Level 1 - directly from the language of the

substantive area
Level 2 - condensed broader categories
Level 3 - Theoretical constructs (Abstract
level)
Core category - pattern of behaviors that is
relevant or problematic

Basic Social Process Emergent Fit

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Phenomenological Analysis
Methods for Descriptive Phenomenology:
Colaizzi (1978)
Giorgi (1985)
Van Kaam (1966)
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Phenomenological Analysis
Identification of Essential Themes

Description of the meaning of an

EXPERIENCE

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Analysis of Ethnographic
Data

Focuses on the culture of a group of

people with an effort to understand

the world view of those under study.

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METHODOLOGICAL
LIMITATIONS

The weakness of the study resulting from

deficiencies in the methodology are

explained in this section. Use these guide
questions:
*What are the limitations of your study
within which conclusions and
generalizations must be confined?
*What limitations exist in your methods or
approach, sampling restrictions,
uncontrolled variables, faulty
instrumentation, and other compromises to
internal and external validity?
(Go, S., 2001)

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Summary, Conclusion and

Recommendation
Summary highlights important findings
Ex. Problem 1. What is the profile of nurses as to age, sex, civil
status, religiosity and length of hospital experience?
Sex There are more females in the sample than males.
Age Majority of the nurses belonged to the age group 20 to
25.
Civil Status There are more single than married nurses.
Religion Majority of nurses went to church at least once a
week.
Length of hospital experience Largest number of nurses had
worked in the hospital for at least 1-2 years

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Summary, Conclusion and

Recommendation
Conclusion Final statement made regarding the
findings
Ex. The study showed that staff nurses in the UST
hospital are relatively young, female, single,
with experience of 1-2 years and therefore had
opportunity to teach about sexuality.

Recommendations: (should spring from the

findings)
- to solve the problem
- for further research

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Recommendations
In the light of the findings the following
recommendations were made:
For the nursing service:
The nursing service should conduct
training programs where nurses can be
taught skills (e.g. communication skills,
assessment, etc. necessary to give
effective sexual health care to patients.

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Dissemination Phase
Oral Presentation
Written Report

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