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CONTROLS
(MODULE 1)
Presented By
RUCHIRA
Assistant Professor
Amity University, Noida.
Standard is a value of
some quantity which is
setup and established by
authority as a rule for
measurement of a quantity.
The system of
measurement must be
related to a known
standard or else the
standard has no meaning.
Significance of Measurements
We
require
measuring
quantities
for
performance in our day to day activities.
Fundamental requirement of any process is
the measurement. Example i.e. input is fed to the system it undergoes a
process output is indicated.
i.e.
output
is
compared
with
inputmeasurement.
Quantities
pertaining
to
operation
&
performance of the device being developed.
Measurement provides the fundamental basis
for research & development as it involves
measurement of various quantities and
parameters.
Significance of
Measurements
Also,
a fundamental element
of any control
process,
which
requires
the
measured
discrepancy between the actual & desired
performances.
Measurement is also considered as a method of
inspection
Measurement technology combined with computer
integrated manufacturing and database management
systems provide information based process control
i.e. to prevent the occurrence of more number of defects
Direct comparison
Direct comparison methods are quite common for measurement of physical quantities like
length, mass, etc.
It is easy and quick.
Indirect
comparison
Most of the measurement systems use indirect method of measurement.
In this method a chain of devices which is together called as measuring system is employed.
The chain of devices transform the sensed signal into a more convenient form & indicate this
an analogous form, which it then processes and presents as a known function of input.
For example, to measure strain in a machine member, a component senses the strain,
another component transforms the sensed signal into an electrical quantity which is then
processed suitably before being fed to a meter or recorder.
Further, human senses are not equipped to detect quantities like pressure, force or strain.
But can feel or sense and cannot predict the exact magnitude of such quantities.
Hence, we require a system that detects/sense, converts and finally presents the output in
DIRECT COMPARISON
INDIRECT COMPARISON
1)Unknown quantity is
measured comparing directly
with primary or secondary
standards
4)Fairly accurate .
MODES OF MEASUREMENTS:
Based upon the complexity of
measurement system, three basic
categories of measurements have
been developed.
They are:
Primary measurement
Secondary measurement
Tertiary measurement
Primary measurement
It is the one that can be very easily made by
direct comparison method/direct observation.
This can be done without any conversions or
translation into lengths or displacements.
Here, the sought value of the parameter is
determined basically by comparing it directly
with reference standards
Examples:
Matching of two colors-in finding the
temperature of a red hot object.
Use of a physical balance-in measuring
weights
Matching or comparing lengths-to find out the
length of the object
Secondary measurement
Bellows
APPLICATIONS OF BELLOWS:
1. Bellows are widely used in
industrial and mechanical
applications such as rod
boots, machinery way
covers, lift covers and rail
covers to protect rods,
bearings and sealings from
dirt.
2. Bellows are widely used on
articulated busesandtrams,
to cover the joint where the
Tertiary Measurements
These tertiary measurements involve two
or more translations or conversions.
Examples:
1. Bourdon tube pressure gauge for
measurement of pressure.
2. Measurement of the speed of a rotating
shaft by means of an electric tachometer.
3. Measurement of temperature of an
object by a thermocouple.
Pressur
e
(Input
)
Primary
Sensing
Element
Force
Variable
conversion
element
Mechanica
l Linkage
Data
transmission
element
Dispplacement
Variable
Gearing manipulation
element
Pointer
and
dial
Data
presentation
element
Characteristics of measurement
systems
To choose the instrument, most suited to a
particular measurement application, we have to
know the system characteristics.
The performance characteristics may be broadly
divided into two groups, namely static and
dynamic characteristics.
Static characteristics
the performance criteria for the measurement of
quantities that remain constant, or vary only
quite slowly.
Dynamic characteristics
the relationship between the system input and
output when the measured quantity
(measurand) is varying rapidly.
Static characteristics
Dynamic characteristics
Pertain to a system where
quantities to be measured
vary rapidly with time.
There
are
many
phenomenon which can be
conveniently described by
the static response while on
the other hand there are
phenomenon which can only
be reported by dynamic
response.
The overall performance of a
system, many a times can be
evaluated by semi-qualitative
super position of static and
dynamic characteristics.
True value or actual value (Va): It is the actual magnitude of the input
signal to a measuring system which may be approximated but never
truly be determined. The true value may be defined as the average of
an infinite number of measured values, when the average deviation of
the various contributing factors tend to zero.
STATIC CHARACTERISTICS
Accuracy: The degree of exactness
(closeness) of a measurement compared
to the expected (true) value.
It is expressed in terms of errors
Sl
No.
Accuracy
Precision
The accuracy
of
measurement means
conformity to truth
STATIC CHARACTERISTICS
Resolution: The smallest change in a measured
variable to which an instrument will respond.
Sensitivity: The ratio of the change in output
(response) of the instrument to a change of input
or measured variable.
Drift : Gradual shift in the meassured value ,over an
extended period, when there is no change in input.
Threshold: The minimum value of input for which
the device just starts to respond
Range/Span: The minimum and maximum value of
quantity so that the device is capable of measuring
STATIC CHARACTERISTICS
Repeatability: A measure of how well the output
returns to a given value when the same precise input
is applied several times.
Or
The ability of an instrument to reproduce a certain set
of reading within a given accuracy.
Range
The input range defines the minimum and
maximum value of the variable to measure.
The output rage defines the minimum and
maximum value of the signal given by the
transducer.
Assume a temperature transducer which
temperature range is from 100C to 250C and
the output range is given from 4 to 10 mV.
Span
I MAX I MIN
Output span:
OMAX OMIN
Linearity
It is normally desirable
that the output reading
Omax
of an instrument is
linearly proportional to
the quantity being
measured.
An instrument is
Omin
considered if the
relationship between
Imin
output an
input
be
OMAX
Ocan
O fitted
OMIN in a line. MIN I I MIN
I MAX I MIN
Imax
N by:
I O I K I a
Non-Linearity can be quoted
N max I
100
OMAX OMIN
Maximum % of Non-Linearity :
Sensitivity
Environmental effects
All calibrations and specifications of an instrument
are only valid under controlled conditions of
temperature, pressure etc.
These standard ambient conditions are usually
defined in the instrument specification.
As variations occur in the ambient temperature,
etc., certain static instrument characteristics
change, and the sensitivity to disturbance is a
measure of the magnitude of this change.
Such environmental changes affect instruments in
two main ways, known as zero drift and sensitivity
drift.
Zero drift is sometimes known by the alternative
term, bias.
Instrument Drift