Solid Modeling

In the solid modeling, the solid definitions include vertices (nodes),

edges, surfaces, weight, and volume. The model is a complete and
unambiguous representation of a precisely enclosed and filled volume

Solid modeling techniques provide the user with the means to create,
store, and manipulate complete representations of solid objects with
the potential for integration and improved automation.

Solid Representation
Several representation schemes are available for the creation of solid
models. Some of the most popular are given:

Constructive Solid Geometry (CSG). CAD packages; Unigraphics,

AutoCAD 3D modeler.
Boundary Representation (B-Rep). mostly used in finite element
programs.
Sweeping.
Cell decomposition and Spatial Occupancy Enumeration

Primitive Solids

Primitive creation functions:

These functions retrieve a

solid of a simple shape
from among the primitive
solids stored in the
program in advance and
create a solid of the same
shape but of the size
specified by the user

Constructive Solid Geometry (CSG)

A CSG model is based on the topological notation that a physical
object can be divided into a set of primitives (basic elements or
shapes) that can be combined in a certain order following a set of
rules (Boolean operations) to form the object.

CONSTRUCTIVE SOLID GEOMETRY, CSG

CSG

defines a model in terms of combining basic and generated

(using extrusion and sweeping operation) solid shapes.
Objects

are represented as a combination of simpler solid objects

(primitives).
CSG

uses Boolean operations to construct a model.

There

are three basic Boolean operations:

Union (Unite, join) - the operation combines two volumes included

in the different solids into a single solid.
Subtract (cut) - the operation subtracts the volume of one solid
from the other solid object.
Intersection - the operation keeps only the volume common to both
solids

BOOLEAN OPERATIONS

Subtract

Union

Intersection

Solid Modeling Example Using CSG

Union

Plan your modeling strategy

before you start creating the
solid model
Cut

Cut

(CSG)- DATA STRUCTURE

Data structure does not define model shape explicitly but

rather implies the geometric shape through a procedural
description

E.g: object is not defined as a set of edges & faces but by

the instruction : union primitive1 with primitive 2

This procedural data is stored in a data structure referred to

as a CSG tree

The data structure is simple and stores compact data easy

to manage

CSG Data Structure

CSG TREE

CSG tree stores the history of

applying boolean operations on the
primitives.
Stores in a binary tree format
The outer leaf nodes of tree
represent the primitives
The interior nodes represent the
Boolean operations performed.

+
-

CSG - ADVANTAGE

CSG is powerful with high level command.

Easy to construct a solid model minimum step.
CSG modeling techniques lead to a concise database less
storage.
Complete history of model is retained and can be altered
at any point.
Can be converted to the corresponding boundary
representation.

CSG - DISADVANTAGE

Only Boolean operations are allowed in the modeling

process with Boolean operation alone, the range of
shapes to be modeled is severely restricted not possible
to construct unusual shape.

Requires a great deal of computation to derive the

information on the boundary, faces and edges which is
important for the interactive display/ manipulation of
solid.

Boundary Representation (B-Rep)

Solid model has information on the faces, edges and vertices in a
surface model and topological information which defines the
relationship between the faces, edges and vertices.

Types of Polyhedral objects

Eulers law ( Validation of B-Rep Models):

Having defined the boundary model primitives and if they satisfy
the following equation then the generated model will be
topologically valid .
F-E+V-L = 2(B-G)
Where F- no. of faces, E- edges, V-vertices, L- loops,
B- bodies and G- genus(handles or through holes)
Open objects satisfy the following Eulers law:
F-E+V-L = B-G
For simple polyhedral models, we can use the following
equation, F-E+V=2

Examples:

Fig.2

Fig.1

Fig.3

Advantages:
Edges and faces are explicitly represented in a
B-Rep, Hence, wireframe can be drawn.
Wide varieties of operations are available.
Drawbacks:
Data structure is complex.
Modifications are troublesome.

Informationally complete as representation of

solids.

They do not always correspond to the

valid solids.

Sweep Representation
Solids that have a uniform thickness in a particular direction and
axisymmetric solids can be created by what is called
Transitional (Extrusion) and Rotational (Revolution) Sweeping
Sweeping requires two elements a surface to be moved and a
trajectory, analytically defined, along which the movement should
occur.

Sweep Representation
Solids that have a uniform thickness in a particular direction and
axisymmetric solids can be created by what is called
Transitional (Extrusion) and Rotational (Revolution) Sweeping
Sweeping requires two elements a surface to be moved and a
trajectory, analytically defined, along which the movement should
occur.

Extrusion (Transitional Sweeping)

Revolution (Rotational Sweeping)

Advantages:
Sweep representations for modeling solids are simple to understand
and execute and they offer opportunities for developing new methods.
They are mathematically concise and often form the data and
analytical framework for subsequent interpretation as a variety of
analytical surfaces or solids, which, in turn, may be used in boundary or
CSG representations.
Drawbacks :
There is a chance of creating dimensionally non-homogeneous and
ambiguous solids when two-dimensional regions are connected by a
one-dimensional structure.
Validation and regularization schemes are unknown.
No formal theory.
Limited domain.

Cell decomposition and Spatial Occupancy

Enumeration
These are the techniques for representing the solids in which a solid
is further sub divided into a number of closely spaced, nonintersecting smaller solids or cells. These cells may or may not be of
same type as the original solid. They may vary in size, type and
orientation.
Cell Decompositioning:
It is one of the most commonly used technique of spatial
partitioning. It decomposes the solid into a set of primitive cells that
are parameterized.

Cell decomposition makes use of bottom up construction in which

complex shapes are created from simple primitives by sticking them
together but the cells must not intersect while sharing point, edge or
face.

It has potential use in finite element analysis.

Fig. Cell Decomposition

Spatial occupancy Enumeration:

It is analogous to cell decomposition but the difference is that, in spatial
occupancy enumeration, the solid is subdivided into exactly identical cells
arranged in a fixed regular grid.
These cells or volume elements are called voxels. Various solid shapes such
as cube, pyramid, prism etc., can be used as voxels.
Representation of solid as regular array of cubes is known as cuberille. it
is an approximation technique.
CAD engineer has to control the presence or absence of a cell at various
locations of the model so as to give it a shape.
The true shape of the sphere can be improved by reducing the size of cell
and increasing the no. of cells.
It is easy to determine whether a cell lies inside or outside a solid.
Parts with orthogonal walls as surface boundaries can be accurately
modeled using cubic cells.