Particulates matter

Basic concepts

Particulate Matter (PM) defined as small (less than 100 m)

pieces of solid materials, liquid droplets, or microbiological
organisms
Particles smaller than 0.001 m start to act like gases and are
not considered here
Range: 0.001 to 100 m
PM is considered a hazard when suspended in air, forming an
aerosol, which can be inhaled
Ingestion and skin contact are concerns also

Particulates <2.5 microns in community air are considered

to be a serious health risk

Emissions from combustion sources are a source

of PM2.5

Particulate Matter
Complex mixture of solid and

liquid particles suspended in

the ambient air
Size classifications

super-coarse
> 10m
coarse (PM10)
< 10m
fine (PM2.5)
< 2.5m
ultrafine < 0.1m

Many sources
Many chemical species:
BRIG, New Jersey (m easured)
Sulfate
Nitrate
Ammonium
Organic Carbon
Elemental Carbon
Soils and crustals

Types of pm
Dusts

General produced by mechanical action (e.g.,

grinding)
Mists
General droplets of liquid, e.g., droplets from
bubbling dip tanks, paint overspray
Fog droplets caused by recondensation of vapor
Fumes
Formed by evaporation and rapid condensation of
metal vapor into very small particles, e.g., welding,
arc or torch cutting, foundry work

Types of pm
Biological agents

Living and non-living agents that may be

allergenic, toxigenic, or infectious, e.g., bacteria,
viruses, fungal spores, prions
Smokes
Products of incomplete combustion of organic
material, e.g., diesel exhaust, human tissue
during laser surgery, cigarette smoke

Specific hazardous PM
Thousands of organic and inorganic PM

found occupationally
The most common categories of agents

Arsenic, Asbestos, Bacteria, Beryllium,

Cadmium, Chromium, Cotton, Cobalt, Diesel
exhaust, Isocyanates, Lead, Manganese,
Mold/Fungal Spores, Nickel, Pesticides,
Radon, Silica/Quartz, Sodium Hydroxide,
Thallium, Thorium, Uranium, Wood dust, Zinc
oxide

Control of
Particulate Matter

 The principle methods for the separation of

such mixtures could be classified as:

1.Wall collected device
Gravity separator
Cyclone & Hydro cyclone separator
Electrostatic precipitator

2. Dividing collected Device

Bag Filtration
Scrubbers

1. Wall Collection Devices

The first three types of control devices we

consider-gravity settlers, cyclone separators,

and electrostatic precipitators-all function by
driving the particles to a solid wall, where they
adhere to each other to form agglomerates
that can be removed from the collection
device and disposed of.

10

Gravity Settlers
The mathematical analysis for gravity settlers

is very easy; it has reappeared in modified

form as cyclones and ESP.

11

 To calculate the behavior of such a device,

engineers generally rely on one of two

models.
Either we assume that the fluid going through
is totally unmixed (block flow or plug flow
model) or we assume total mixing, either in
the entire device or in the entire cross section
perpendicular to flow (backmixed or mixed
model).
12

 The observed behavior of nature most often falls

between these two simple cases.

For either block or mixed flow, the average horizontal
gas velocity in the chamber is

vavg

WH

13

For the block flow model, we assume

(1) The horizontal velocity of the gas in the
chember is equal to vavg everywhere in the
chamber.
(2) The vertical component of the velocity of
the particles is equal to their terminal settling
velocity due to gravity, vt .

14

 The time of the gas parcel is

L
t
avg

15

 During that time the particle will settle by gravity a

distance

vartical settling distance t t t

avg

If this distance is greater than or equal to h, then it

will reach the floor of the chamber and be captured.

16

 If all the particles are of the same size (and hence

have the same value of vt), then there is some

distance above the floor (at the inlet) below which all
of the particles will be captured, and above which
none of them will be captured.
If all the particles are distributed uniformly across the
inlet of the chamber, the fractional collection
efficiency is

Lt
Fraction captured =
for block flow
Havg

(1)

17

 To compute the efficiency-particle diameter

relationship, we replace vt in Eq. (1) with the gravitysettling relations described in last chapter (Stokes
law equation) and find

LgD 2 p

Hvavg 18

for block flow

(2)

18

 Now to consider the mixed flow model, we

assume that the gas flow is totally mixed in

the x direction.

19

 Combining these equations and rearranging, we have

dc
t

dx
c
Havg
Which we may integrate from the inlet (x = 0) to the

outlet (x = L), finding

cout
t L
ln

cin
Havg
20

 Or

cout
cin

L
1 exp Ht avg

Finally we can substitute for vt from Stokes law,

finding

1 exp

LgD 2 p
Havg 18

mixed flow

(3)

21

 Comparing this result with that for the block flow, Eq.

(2), we see that Eq. (3) can be rewritten as

mixed 1 exp block flow

(4)

22

Example 1
Compute the efficiency-diameter relation for a

gravity settler that has H = 2 m, L = 10 m, and

vavg = 1 m/s for both the block and mixed flow
models, assuming Stokes law.
Solution:
Here we can get the result using only one
computation and then using ratios.

23

 First we compute the block efficiency for a 1-

particle, viz.,
block

LgD 2 p
18 H avg

(10 m)(9.81 m / s 2 )(10 6 m) 2 (2000 kg / m3 )

4

3.03

10
(18)(1.8 105 kg / m / s)(2 m)(1 m / s)

The mixed assumption leads to practically the same

result, viz.,

mixed 1 exp(3.03 104 ) 3.029 10 4

24

 To find the efficiencies for other particle

diameters, we observe that the block

efficiency is proportional to the particle
diameter squared, so we make up a table of
block flow efficiencies by simple ratios to the
value for 1, and then compute the
corresponding mixed flow efficiencies as just
shown.

25

Particle diameter,

block (%)

mixed (%)

1
10
30
50
57.45
80
100
120
26

Particle diameter,
1
10

block (%)

mixed (%)

0.0303

0.0303

3.03

2.98

30

27.3

23.9

50

76.0

53.0

100.0

63.0

80

86.0

100

95.0

120

99.0

57.45

These values are shown in Fig. 9.2 (next slide).

27

Cyclone separator

29

 The low collection efficiency, about 80%, of a

typical cyclone shows that it cannot meet

modern control standards (usually > 95%
required control efficiency) for any particle
group that has a substantial fraction smaller
than 5 in diameter.

37

1.3 Electrostatic Precipitators (ESP)

The electrostatic precipitator is like a gravity

settler or centrifugal separator, but

electrostatic force drives the particles to the
wall.
It is effective on much smaller particles than
the previous two devices.

39

ELCTROSTATIC PRINCIPLE :Anelectrostatic precipitator(ESP) is

andevice that removes dust particles
from a flowing gas (such as air) using the
force of an induced electrostatic
attraction
Electrostatic precipitators are highly
efficient filtrationdevices that allow the
flow of gases through the device, and can
easily remove fine particulate matter
such as dust and smoke from the air

BASIC DIAGRAM OF AN ELECTROSTATIC

dc voltage

Clean gas

Discharge
electrode
Control cabinet High voltage Rectifier
transformer

Dust gas

Hooper

Collector
electrode

Control cabinet
Control cabinet is used to interconnect the 3 ac supply a
transformer through wires.
Transformer

Transformer is used to step up or step down the voltage a

per the design of Electrostatic precipitator.

Rectifier
Rectifier is used to convert the given ac supply into dc su
Hooper

Hooper is used to store the dust particles and ash conten

coming out from the Electrostatic precipitator.

Electrodes : Based on DC current flow terminals

elctrodes can be divided as below:-

Discharge electrode :Electrodes wire which carries

negatively charged high voltage act
as discharge or emitting electrodes.

Collector electrode :Electrode wire which carries

positively charged high voltage act
as
Collecting electrodes.

Collector
electrodes
Discharge
electrode

WORKING OF ELECTROSTATIC PRECIPITATOR

Stage - 1

Several things happen very rapidly (in a matter of a millisecond) in the sm

around the discharge electrode. Electric field is emerged due to dc termina
arrangement. The applied (-) voltage in discharge electrode is increased un
produces a corona discharge, which can be seen as a luminous blue glow
the discharge Electrode.
Due to the formation of corona discharge,
free electrons are emitted with high
velocity from discharge electrode.
This fast moving free electrons strikes the
gas molecule thus emission of free
electron from gas molecules takes place.
The positive ion molecule move towards
discharge electrode by electrostatic
attraction
As a result using gas molecule more
free electrons are emitted near the
discharge electrode.

Stage 2
As the electrons leave the
strong electrical field area
around the discharge
electrode, they start slowing
down. This free electron again
strikes the gas molecule but
this time they are captured
by gas molecule and became
negatively charged ion.
As the gas molecule are
negatively ionized they move
towards the (+) electrode (i.e.,
collector electrode).
This negative gas ion fills the
space of Dust particle and
becoming negatively charged
particle.

2. Dividing Collection Devices

Filters and scrubbers do not drive the

particles to a wall, but rather divide the flow

into smaller parts where they can collect the
particles.

2.1 Surface Filters

A surface filter is a membrane (sheet steel,

cloth, wire mesh, or filter paper) with holes

smaller than the dimensions of the particles
to be retained.
46

 However, one only needs to ponder the

mechanical problem of drilling holes of 0.1-

diameter or of weaving a fabric with threads
separated by 0.1 to see that such filters are
not easy to produce.
They are much too expensive and fragile for
use as high-volume industrial air cleaners.

47

 Although industrial air filters rarely have holes

smaller than the smallest particles captured,

they often act as if they did.
The reason is that, as fine particles are
caught on the sides of the holes of a filter,
they tend to bridge over the holes and make
them smaller.
Thus as the amount of collected particles
increases, the cake of collected material
becomes the filter.

48

 The particles collect on the front surface of

the growing cake.

For that reason this is called a surface filter.
The flow through a simple filter is shown
schematically in Fig. 9.12.

49

 In most industrial filters, both for gases and liquids,

the flow velocity in the individual pores is so low that

the flow is laminar.
Therefore, we may use the well-known relations for
laminar flow of a fluid in a porous medium, which
indicate

Q p k
s

A x

(19)

Here, k is the permeability, a property of the bed.

52

 For a steady fluid flow through a filter cake supported

by a filter medium, there are two resistances to flow

in series, but the flow rate is the same through each
of them.
We find:
P P k
P -P
k
s 1 2 = 2 3
x cake
x filter

Solving for P2, we get

x

x
P2 P1 s
=P3 s
k cake
k

filter
53

 Then solving for vs:

( p1 p3 )
Q
vs

[(x / k )cake (x / k ) filter ] Afilter

(20)

This equation describes the instantaneous flow rate

through a filter; it is analogous to Ohms law for two

resistors in series.
The x/k terms are called the cake resistance and
the cloth resistance.

54

 The resistance of the filter medium is usually

assumed to be a constant that is independent of

time, so (x/k)filter is replaced with a constant .
If the filter cake is uniform, then its resistance is

proportional to its thickness:

xcake

mass of cake

area

cake

1 volume of gas mass of solids removed

area
volume
of
gas

cake

55

 Customarily we define:
mass of solids removed 1
volume of cake

volume of gas
volume of gas processed

cake

Here W is the volume of cake per volume of gas

processed, which corresponds to a collection
efficiency, , of 1.0.
For most surface filters =1.0, so the is normally
dropped in the equation. Thus
V
W and
A

xcake

d (xcake )
sW
dt

(21)

Here V is the volume of gas cleaned.

56

 Substituting Eq. (21) for the cake thickness in Eq. (20), we

find

(P1 -P3 )
Q 1 dV
s = =
=
A A dt
[(VW/kA+ ]

(22)

For most industrial gas filtrations the filter is supplied by a

centrifugal blower at practically constant pressure, so (P1P3) is a constant, and Eq. (22) may be rearranged and
integrated to
2

V W
V

( P1 P3 )t
2 k A
A

(23)

57

 For many filtrations the resistance of the

filter medium is negligible compared with the

cake resistance, so the second term of Eq.
(23) may be dropped.
The two most widely used designs of
industrial surface filters are shown in Figs.
9.13 and 9.14 (next and second slides).

58

 For the baghouse in Fig. 9.13 there must be some

way of removing the cake of particles that

accumulates on the filters.
Normally this is not done during gas-cleaning
operations.
A weak flow of gas in the reverse direction may also
be added to help dislodge the cake, thus deflating the
bags.
Often metal rings are sewn into filter bags at regular
intervals so that they will only partly collapse when
the flow in reversed.
59

 Because it cannot filter gas while it is being

cleaned, a shake-deflate baghouse cannot serve

as the sole pollution control device for a source that
produces a continuous flow of dirty gas.
Typically, for a major continuous source like a
power plant, about five baghouses will be used in
parallel, with four operating as gas cleaners during
the time that the other one is being shaken and
cleaned.
Each baghouse might operate for two hours and
then be cleaned for 10 minutes.
60

 The other widely used baghouse design,

called a pulse-jet filter.

In it the flow during filtration is inward through
the bags, which are similar to the bags in Fig.
9.13 except their ends open at the top.
The bags are supported by internal wire
cages to prevent their collapse.

61

 The bags are cleaned by intermittent jets of

compressed air that flow into the inside of the

bag to blow the cake off.
Often these baghouses are cleaned while
they are in service.

62

SCRUBBEERS
Scrubbers are most often used as an air pollution
control device to remove particulate matters and
chemicals from waste gas streams of stationary
point source. They are also applied where the
slurry is used in other parts of the process or
where the mixture is in a slurry form. In some
scrubbers are applied so that chemical reaction
will be generated within the scrubbing action.

63

 Particles 50 and larger are easily collected in

cyclones.
If our problem is to collect a set of 0.5
particles, cyclones will not work at all.
However, if we were to introduce a large number
of 50 diameter drops of a liquid (normally
water) into the gas stream to collect the fine
particles, then we would pass the stream
through a cheap, simple cyclone and collect the
drops and the fine particles stuck on them.
64

Wet Scrubbers
Principle

Wet scrubbers are used for removal of particles which have

a diameter of the order of 0.2 mm or higher.
Wet scrubbers work by spraying a stream of fine liquid
droplets on the incoming stream.
The droplets capture the particles

The liquid is subsequently removed for treatment.

Construction and Operation

A wet scrubber consists of a rectangular or circular

chamber in which nozzles are mounted.
The nozzles spray a stream of droplets on the incoming gas
stream
The droplets contact the particulate matter, and the
particles get sorbed.
The droplet size has to be optimized.

Wet Scrubbers (contd.)

o

Construction and Operation (contd.)

Smaller droplets provide better cleaning, but are more

difficult to remove from the cleaned stream.

The polluted spray is collected.

Particles are settled out or otherwise removed from

the liquid.

The liquid is recycled.

Wet scrubbers are also used for the removal of gases

from the air streams.

Scrubber
Efficiency
where,
k = Scrubber coefficient (m3 of gas/ m3 of liquid)
R = Liquid-to-gas flow rate (QL/QG)
= internal impaction parameter
Internal impaction parameter

where,
c = cunningham correction factor
p = particle density (kg/m3)
Vg = speed of gas at throat (m/sec)
dp = diameter of particle (m)
dd = diameter of droplet (m)
= dynamic viscosity of gas, (Pa-S)

Wet Scrubbers (contd.)

Advantages of Wet Scrubbers

Wet Scrubbers can handle incoming streams at high

temperature, thus removing the need for temperature

control equipment.
Wet scrubbers can handle high particle loading.

Loading fluctuations do not affect the removal efficiency.

They can handle explosive gases with little risk.

Gas adsorption and dust collection are handled in one unit.

Corrosive gases and dusts are neutralized.

Disadvantages of Wet Scrubbers

High potential for corrosive problems

Effluent scrubbing liquid poses a water pollution problem.

Types of Scrubers
Orifice
Impigement
Venturi

70

Orifice Scrubbers

The gas is impacted onto a layer of the

scrubbing liquid.

The gas passes through the liquid, thus

removing almost all the particulate matter,
and a large portion of the probable gases.

After coming out of the liquid, the gas is

passed through baffles to remove the liquid
droplets.

Impingement Scrubbers

In Impingement scrubbers, the gas impacts a

layer of liquid/froth through a perforated tray.

Passing through this layer removes the

particulate matter.

The wet gas stream is then passed through a

mist collector.

Venturi Scrubbers

The dirty gas is led in to the chamber at high

inlet velocities.

At the inlet throat, liquid at low pressure is

added to the gas stream

This increases the relative velocity between

the gas and the droplets, thus increasing the
efficiency of removal.

Efficiencies of the range of 95% for particles

larger than 0.2 mm have been obtained.

Venturi scrubbers
Venturi scrubber has a converging-diverging section, in this type

of system the cross sectional area of the channel decreases then

increases along the length of the channel. The narrowest area in
the channel is referred as the throat. In venturi scrubber, liquid is
introduced slightly upstream of the throat or directly into the
throat section. In the converging section the decrease in area
causes the waste gas stream velocity and turbulence to increase
(figure 5.6).
74

 The scrubbing liquid is atomized by high velocity air stream

and improves the air liquid contact. Further the air liquid
mixtures decelerate as it moves through the diverging section,
which helps to creates particle droplet impacts

and

agglomeration of the droplets.

The separation of the liquid droplets from the air stream takes

place in the entrainment section. The entrainment section usually

consists of cyclonic separator and mist eliminator.

75

 For venturi scrubber collection efficiency for the fine particulate matter

is higher but the equipment is more expensive than spray tower, cyclonic
or tray tower scrubber. High air velocity and turbulence in the venture
scrubber throat result in high collection efficiencies ranging from 70 to
99% for particles larger than 1 m in diameter and greater than 50% for
submicron particles.
Increasing the pressure drop increases the collection efficiency, but the

systems energy demand also increases leading to higher operational

cost.

76

Venturi scrubber with cyclone separator and eliminator

 For the venturi shown in Fig. 9.26 the throat

cross-sectional area is about one-fifth that at the

inlet or outlet, so the velocity there must be about
five times the velocity at the inlet or outlet.
To achieve high velocities in a gas flow we must
have a drop in pressure; for steady, horizontal
frictionless flow we know that

2
2
P2 P1 1 2
2
78

 A venturi co-flow scrubber seems the most

economical way to get a high velocity for

rapid liquid breakup into drops and high
collection efficiency with minimum fan power.

79

Example 22
In a venturi scrubber the throat velocity is 122

m/s.
The particles to be collected have diameters
of 1 , and the droplet diameter is 100 .
We are feeding 10-3 m3 of liquid per m3 of gas
to the scrubber (QL / QG =10-3).
At a point where vRel is 0.9 vG, what is the rate
of decrease in particle concentration in the
gas phase?

80

 Solution:
The appropriate velocity to use in Ns is vRel.
DP2 Rel (2000kg / m3 )(106 m) 2 (0.9 122 m / s )
NS

6.78
5
4
18 DD
(18)(1.8 10 kg / m / s)(10 m)

From Fig. 9.18, we see that t = 0.92.

Then from Eq. (37),
dc / c
0.9 G
124
0.124
1.5
3

0.92
10

4
dx

0.9

m
mm
10 m
G
G

In this part of the scrubber, the concentration of particles

in the gas is decreasing by 12.4% for every millimeter of

gas travel in the flow direction. #

81

Example 23
How rapidly is vRel changing for the drop in Example
22?
Solution:
The particle Reynolds number for the droplet is
DD Rel (104 m)(1.20 kg / m3 )(0.9 122 m / s)
RP

732
5

1.8 10 kg / m / s

In any fluid mechanics text we can look up the

corresponding drag coefficient for a spherical droplet,

finding that it is about 0.7.
82

 Then we can compute the acceleration of the drop as

2
d Rel FD ( / 4) DD2 Cd air ( Rel
/ 2)
a

dt
m
( / 6) DD3 D

1.5Cd air

2
Rel
(1.5)(0.7)(1.20 kg / m3 )(106.7 m / s) 2

2 DD D
2(104 m)(1000 kg / m3 )

7.2 104 m / s 2
3700 times the acceleration of gravity! #

83

 Calvert made several simplifications and thus

was able to perform the integration of Eq.

(37) numerically; the results of that
integration, for a typical venturi scrubber, are
summarized in Fig. 9.27 (next slide).
The figures use will be illustrated later.

84

2.4.3 Pressure Drop in Scrubbers

Venturi scrubbers have higher pressure drops

and higher efficiencies than the crossflow and

counterflow scrubbers.
The power cost of the fan that drives the
contaminated gas through a venturi scrubber
often is much more important than the
purchase cost of the scrubber.

86

Example 24
A typical venturi scrubber has a throat area of
0.5 m2, a throat velocity of 100 m/s, and a
pressure drop of 100 cm of water = 9806
N/m2.
If we have a 100% efficiency motor and
blower, what is the power required to force
the gas through this venturi?

87

 Solution:

kW gs
100 m
N

Power QG p 0.5 m
9806

2
3
s
m
10
N
g
m

245 kW 328 hp
2

If the fan and scrubber operate 8760 h/yr and the

electricity costs 5 cents/kWh, the annual power cost

will be
Power cost = (245 kW)(8760 h/yr) ($0.05/kWh) = $ 107,300/yr
#

88

 A venturi as shown in Fig. 9.24, for steady

flow and negligible wall friction, we have

(letting 1 stand for inlet conditions and 2
stand for outlet conditions)
(P1-P2)(xy)=QGG(vG2-vG1)+QLL(vL2-vL1)

(38)

In most cases the gas velocity changes very

little from inlet to outlet, although it may have

a very high value at the throat, so the first
term on the right is negligible.
89

 Normally the liquid inlet velocity vL1 is negligible, and

the liquid outlet velocity vL2 equal to the gas velocity.

So Eq. (38) normally is simplified to

QL LG QL L QG
QL
2
p1 p2

G L
2
xy
A
QG

(39)

90

Example 25
For a scrubber using water as the scrubbing liquid,
estimate the pressure for vG = QG/xy = 100 m/s,
and QL/QG= 0.001.
Solution:

From Eq. (39)

N gs 2
2
3
P1 P2 100 m / s 1000 kg / m 0.001

kg gm
10 4 N / m 2 10 4 Pa 0.1 atm 102 cm H 2O

91

 Unfortunately, the very properties that cause

wet scrubbers to have high pressure drops

are the same ones that make them efficient
particle collectors: the rapid acceleration of
liquid by the fast-moving gas produces both
effects.
Fig. 9.28 (next slide) shows test results taken
by Lapple and Kamack in which they used
one kind of particle, a talc, in a variety of
scrubber designs.
92

Example 26
We wish to treat a gas stream to remove

most of the particles.

We conclude that if we have a cut diameter of
0.5 we will have made a satisfactory
particle removal.
If we use QL/QG = 0.001, what gas velocity at
the throat will we need, and what will the
expected pressure drop be?
94

 Solution:
From Fig. 9.27, using the results in Example 4 of last
chapter for a 0.5 particle, we can compute a
Cunningham correction factor of 1.24, so the
aerodynamic cut diameter is
1/ 2
1/ 2
gm
gm

D pca 0.5 2 3 1.24 0.79

3
cm
cm

From Fig. 9.27, it is clear that this would require a

throat velocity of about 90 m/s and a pressure drop of

about 80 cm of water.
95

SOx Control processes

96

Sources of SOx
The majority of sulfur
oxides come from
power generation
sources:
- coal
- oil
S + O2 SO2

Other sources include:

- other industry such as paper mills
- mobile sources
- natural sources (e.g. volcanoes)

97

Specific Pollutants Involved

While SO2 is the main sulfur-containing
pollutant, there are various others:
SO3 (the other oxide) SO2 + O2 SO3
H2S
Various mercaptans (decaying garbage)
H - S - R or R- S - R
98

Effects
Human Health (as well as animals)
Plants
Corrosion
Acid Rain

99

Human Health Effects

Lung and throat irritation

Worse symptoms for those with bronchitis
Weakening of the immune system
Sulfur oxides in combination with other air
pollutants seem affect health even more:
SOx with acid aerosols can product chronic cough
and difficulty breathing
SOx with PM has produced some of the worst air pollution
disasters (Meuse Valley 1930, Donora 1948, London 1952)

100

Effects on Plants
Sulfur dioxide* can enter leaf
stomata, causing:
Necrosis morphological
changes due to cell death
(produces brown or black spots)

Necrosis (above)
Chlorosis (below)

Chlorosis bleaching of
leaves, producing a yellow or
white discoloration
*These effects can happen with other air pollutants as well
101

Corrosion
Apart from acid rain, sulfur-containing
gases can directly corrode metals
H2S is most notorious for corrosion, but
sulfur oxides and mercaptans can also
corrode. Many times, corrosion is actually
due to microbial activity acting on the sulfur
Gas pipeline

Stainless Steel
102

Acid Rain

Sulfur oxides are not the only

contributor to acid rain, but they are a
primary cause. The chemistry is:
SO2 + h SO2*
SO2* +O2 SO3 + O
SO3 + H2O H2SO4

103

Acid Rain
The process

104

Treatment techniques

1. Dry Methods

1.1 Alkalized Alumina Process

1.2 Reinluft Process
1.3 Westvaco Process
2. Wet Scrubbing
2.1 Lime stone scrubbing
2.2 Limestone Scrubbing
2.3 Magnesium Oxide Scrubbing
2.4 Welman Lord Process

105

Limestone Scrubbing
Limestone slurry is sprayed on the incoming

flue gas. The sulfur dioxide gets absorbed

The limestone and the sulfur dioxide react as
follows :
CaCO3 + H2O + 2SO2 ----> Ca+2 + 2HSO3-+ CO2
CaCO3 + 2HSO3-+ Ca+2 ----> 2CaSO3 + CO2 + H2O

Scrubbing
with
basic
solidSOor
SO is an acid gas
sorbent a
slurries
used to remove
fromsolution
flue gases alkaline.
2

Wet scrubbing using a CaCO3 (limestone) slurry produces CaSO3 (calcium sulfite):
CaCO3 (solid) + SO2 (gas) CaSO3 (solid) + CO2 (gas)
Ca(OH)2 (lime) slurry, the reaction also produces CaSO3 (calcium sulfite):
Ca(OH)2 (solid) + SO2 (gas) CaSO3 (solid) + H2O (liquid)
Mg(OH)2 (magnesium hydroxide) slurry produces MgSO3 (magnesium sulfite):
Mg(OH)2 (solid) + SO2 (gas) MgSO3 (solid) + H2O (liquid)

To partially offset the cost of the FGD, in some designs, the CaSO3 (calcium sulfite)
is oxidized to produce marketable CaSO42H2O (gypsum) by forced oxidation:
CaSO3 (solid) + H2O (liquid) + O2 (gas) CaSO4 (solid) + H2O
107

Limestone Scrubbing

Lime Scrubbing
The equipment and the processes are similar to

those in limestone scrubbing Lime Scrubbing offers

better utilization of the reagent. The operation is
more flexible. The major disadvantage is the high
cost of lime compared to limestone.
The reactions occurring during lime scrubbing are :
CaO + H2O -----> Ca(OH)2
SO2 + H2O <----> H2SO3
H2SO3 + Ca(OH)2 -----> CaSO3.2 H2O
CaSO3.2 H2O + (1/2)O2 -----> CaSO4.2 H2O

Lime Scrubbing

Dual Alkali System

Lime and Limestone scrubbing lead to deposits inside spray tower.

The deposits can lead to plugging of the nozzles through which the
scrubbing slurry is sprayed.

The Dual Alkali system uses two regents to remove the sulfur dioxide.

Sodium sulfite / Sodium hydroxide are used for the absorption of

sulfur dioxide inside the spray chamber.

The resulting sodium salts are soluble in water,so no deposits are

formed.

The spray water is treated with lime or limestone, along with make-up
sodium hydroxide or sodium carbonate.

The sulfite / sulfate ions are precipitated, and the sodium hydroxide is
regenerated.

Wellman Lord Process

This process consists of the following subprocesses:

Flue gas pre-treatment.

Sulfur dioxide absorption by sodium sulfite

Purge treatment

Sodium sulfite regeneration.

The concentrated sulfur dioxide stream is processed to a marketable

product.

The flue gas is pre - treated to remove the particulate. The sodium
sulfite neutralizes the sulfur dioxide :

Na2SO3 + SO2 + H2O -----> 2NaHSO3

Wellman Lord Process (contd.)

Some of the Na2SO3 reacts with O2 and the SO3 present in the

flue gas to form Na2SO4 and NaHSO3.

Sodium sulfate does not help in the removal of sulfur dioxide,

and is removed. Part of the bisulfate stream is chilled to

precipitate the remaining bisulfate. The remaining bisulfate
stream is evaporated to release the sulfur dioxide, and
regenerate the bisulfite.

Limestone Scrubbing
CaCO3 ( s ) H 2O 2SO2 Ca 2 2 HSO3 CO2 ( g )
CaCO3 ( s ) 2 HSO3 Ca 2 2CaSO3 CO2 ( g ) H 2O

Lime Scrubbing
CaO H 2O Ca OH 2
SO2 H 2O H 2 SO3
H 2 SO3 Ca (OH ) 2 CaSO3 2 H 2O
CaSO3 2 H 2O 0.5O2 CaSO4 2 H 2O

Duaal Alkali
2

Na2 SO3 / NaOH SO2 Na xSO42 ySO3 0.5 H 2O

2
CaO / CaCO3 xSO4 2 ySO3 Na 0.5 H 2O
xCaSO4 yCaSO3 NaOH (recycled)

114

Wellman-Lord
(W-L)
process
(1) Flue gas pretreatment: (venturi prescrubber) to remove
particulates, SO3 and HCl
(2) SO2 absorption by Na2SO3 solution

Na2 SO3 SO2 H 2O 2 NaHSO3

Na2 SO3 0.5O2 Na2 SO4
2 Na2 SO3 SO3 H 2O Na2 SO4 2 NaHSO3
(3) Purge treatment: centrifuge the slurry to remove solids
(4) Na2SO3 regeneration

2 NaHSO3 heat
Na2 SO3 SO2 H 2O
Na2CO3 SO2 Na2 SO3 CO2
(average, 1 mole Na2SO3 for 42 moles of SO2)

MgO process
Similar to lime/limestone scrubbing

115

116

Alkalized alumina process

The dust free flue gas is fed to a reactor wherein

the adsorbent, a porous form of sodium

aluminate (Na2O.Al2O3), adsorbs SO2 at a temp.
315oC
During the adsorption , the SO2 and O2 in the
flue gas react with the adsorbent

The spent material is then contacted with a

reducing gas such as hydrogen in regenerator at

680oC to produce hydrogen sulphise
117

 The sodium aluminate pellete are recycled

and the H2S gas is sent to a Claus unit for

the production of sulphur.
Maintenance of grannualar sorbent is the
major problem
Regeneration cycle results is uneconomically
high attrition rates.

118

119

120

Westvaco Process
Flue gas is contacted with activated carnon in

the adsorbent unit

Carbon acts as a catalyst in the oxidation of
SO2
to SO3. SO3 hydrolyses to H2SO4 on
reacting with the moisture present in the flue
gas and is stored in the carbon.

121

Westvaco Process
The spent carbon is fed to a sulphur generator

where it is contacted with H2S to form sulphur

A fraction of sulphur is then recoverd by

vaporization (hot inert gas) in sulphur stripper

Recondesnsed (moltten product)
Remaining sulphur reacts with hydrogen it will
form H2S
The regenerated carbon is recycled
122

NOX CONTROL

Background on Nitrogen
Oxides

There are seven known oxides of nitrogen :

NO

NO2

NO3

N2 O

N2 O3

N2 O4

N2 O5

NO and NO2 are the most common of the seven oxides

listed above. NOx released from stationary sources is
of two types

General Methods For Control

Of Nox Emissions
NOx control can be achieved by:

Fuel Denitrogenation

Combustion Modification

Modification of operating conditions

Tail-end control equipment

Selective Catalytic Reduction

Selective Non - Catalytic Reduction

Electron Beam Radiation

Staged Combustion

Fuel Denitrogenation
o One approach of fuel denitrogenation is to remove a
large part of the nitrogen contained in the fuels.
Nitrogen is removed from liquid fuels by mixing the
fuels with hydrogen gas, heating the mixture and
using a catalyst to cause nitrogen in the fuel and
gaseous hydrogen to unite. This produces ammonia
and cleaner fuel.

This technology can reduce the nitrogen contained in

both naturally occurring and synthetic fuels.

Combustion Modification
Combustion control uses one of the

following strategies:

Reduce peak temperatures of the flame zone. The

methods are :

increase the rate of flame cooling

decrease the adiabatic flame temperature by dilution

Reduce residence time in the flame zone. For this we,

change the shape of the flame zone

Reduce Oxygen concentration in the flame one. This

can be accomplished by:

decreasing the excess air

controlled mixing of fuel and air

using a fuel rich primary flame zone

Modification Of Operating
Conditions
The operating conditions can be modified

to achieve significant reductions in the

rate of thermal NOx production. the
various methods are:

Low-excess firing

Off-stoichiometric combustion ( staged combustion )

Flue gas recirculation

Reduced air preheat

Reduced firing rates

Water Injection

Tail-end Control Processes

o

Combustion modification and modification of

operating conditions provide significant
reductions in NOx, but not enough to meet
regulations.

For further reduction in emissions, tail-end control

equipment is required.

Some of the control processes are:

Selective Catalytic Reduction

Selective Non-catalytic Reduction

Electron Beam Radiation

Staged Combustion

Selective Catalytic Reduction

(SCR)
In this process, the nitrogen oxides in the flue gases

are reduced to nitrogen

During this process, only the NOx species are reduced
NH3 is used as a reducing gas
The catalyst is a combination of titanium and

vanadium oxides. The reactions are given below :

4 NO + 4 NH3 + O2 -----> 4N2 + 6H2O
2NO2 + 4 NH3+ O2 -----> 3N2 + 6H2O
Selective catalytic reduction catalyst is best at around

300 too 400 oC.

Typical efficiencies are around 80 %

Electron Beam Radiation

This treatment process is under

development, and is not widely used. Work

is underway to determine the feasibility of
electron beam radiation for neutralizing
hazardous wastes and air toxics.

Irradiation of flue gases containing NOx or SOx

produce nitrate and sulfate ions.

The addition of water and ammonia produces

NH4NO3, and (NH4)2SO4

The solids are removed from the gas, and are sold
as fertilizers.

Staged Combustion
PRINCIPLE

Initially, less air is supplied to bring about

incomplete combustion

Nitrogen is not oxidized. Carbon particles and CO are

released.

In the second stage, more air is supplied to complete

the combustion of carbon and carbon monoxide.

30% to 50% reductions in NOx emissions are achieved.

CARBON MONOXIDE
CONTROL

Formation Of Carbon
Monoxide

Due to insufficient oxygen

Factors affecting Carbon monoxide

formation:

Fuel-air ratio

Degree of mixing

Temperature

General Methods For Control of CO

Emissions

Control carbon monoxide formation.

Note : CO & NOx control strategies are in conflict.

Stationary Sources

Proper Design

Installation

Operation

Maintenance

Process Industries

Burn in furnaces or waste heat boilers.

CARBON DIOXIDE
CONTROL

Sources of Carbon Dioxide

Human-Related Sources
Combustion of fossil fuels: Coal, Oil, and Natural
Gas in power plants, automobiles, and industrial
facilities
Use of petroleum-based products
Industrial processes: Iron and steel production,
cement, lime, and aluminum manufactures
Natural Sources
Volcanic eruptions
Ocean-atmosphere exchange
Plant photosynthesis

Sources of CO2 Emissions in

the U.S.

(x-axis units are teragrams of CO2

Source: USEPA

CO2 Emissions from Fossil Fuel

Combustion by Sector and Fuel
Type

(y-axis units are teragrams of CO2

equivalent)

Source: USEPA

General Methods For Control of CO2

Emissions
Reducing energy consumption, increasing

the efficiency of energy conversion

Switching to less carbon intensive fuels
Increasing the use of renewable sources
Sequestering CO2 through biological,

chemical, or physical processes

CONTROL OF MERCURY
EMISSIONS

Mercury Emissions
Mercury exists in trace amounts in

Fossil fuels such as Coal, Oil, and Natural Gas

Vegetation
Waste products

Mercury is released to the atmosphere through

combustion or natural processes

It creates both human and environmental risks
Fish consumption is the primary pathway for
human and wildlife exposure
United states is the first country in the world to
regulate mercury emissions from coal-fired power
plants (March 15, 2005).

Types of
Sources

Source: Seingeur, 2004 and Mason and Sheu,

2002.

Worldwide Distribution of
Emissions

Source: Presentation by J. Pacyna and J. Munthe at mercury workshop in

Brussels, March 29-30, 2004

Control Technologies for

Mercury Emissions
Currently installed control devices for SO 2, NOX, and

particulates, in a power plant, remove some of the mercury

before releasing from the stack
Activated Carbon Injection:

Particles of activated carbon are injected into the exit gas

flow, downstream of the boiler. The mercury attaches to the
carbon particles and is removed in a particle control device
Thief process for the removal of mercury from flue gas:

It is a process which extracts partially burned coal from a

pulverized coal-fired combustor using a suction pipe, or
"thief," and injects the resulting sorbent into the flue gas to
capture the mercury.