Intro to Movement Neuroscience

Lecture #3:
Physical and Electrical Properties of Cells in
the Nervous System

Davis Forman
Email: Davis.Forman@uoit.ca

Lecture Outline
1.

Structure of Neurons

2.

Types of Neurons

3.

Membrane Channels

4.

Membrane Potentials

5.

Interactions between Neurons

6.

Glia

7.

Neuroinflammation
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Part 1:
Structure of Neurons

Structure of Neurons
Neurons receive information, process it, and
generate output
Organelles of a neuron include the nucleus, Golgi
bodies, mitochondria, lysosomes, and
endoplasmic reticulum
Nucleus, Golgi apparatus, and rough endoplasmic
reticulum are restricted to the soma
Other organelles (mitochondria) are distributed
throughout the neuron
Plasma membrane surrounds the cell, separating the
extracellular environment from its contents
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Components of Neurons
Typical neuron has four main components:
1. Soma: synthesizes a large quantity and variety of proteins
used as neurotransmitters
2. Dendrites: are branchlike extensions that serve as the main
input sites for the cell
3. Axon: the transmission unit of the cell which carries action
potentials from the soma to the presynaptic terminal
4. Presynaptic(axon) terminals: output region that transmits
information to postsynaptic tissue (neurons, muscle, organs)
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Components of Neurons
Neurons transmit information about
their activity via neurotransmitters
from the presynaptic terminals into
the synaptic cleft.
o Synaptic cleft is the space between
neurons, and serves as the site for
interneuronal communication

Basic functions of a neuron are:

reception, integration, transmission,
and transfer of information
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Structure of Neurons

Axoplasmic Transport
Axoplasmic transport:
mechanism for transporting
substances along an axon
Occurs in two directions,
anterograde and retrograde.
o Anterograde: from the soma toward the
presynaptic terminal
o Retrograde: from the synapse back to
the soma

Occurs at many speeds but slows

as part of aging
o Also slows in neurodegenerative
diseases (Alzheimers, Huntingtons,
ALS)

Part 2:
Types of Neurons

Types of Neurons
Components of neurons are standard
Organization depends on the type of neuron involved:
Bipolar cells
Example: retinal bipolar cell in the eye
1 dendrite or less
Multipolar cells
Example: spinal motor neuron, which projects from the spinal
cord to innervate skeletal muscle fibers
Many dendritesex.100

Classification is derived from the number of structures

arising from the cell body
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Bipolar Neurons
Two primary structures:
o Dendritic root: divides into multiple dendritic
branches.
o Axon: projects to form presynaptic terminals

Subclass of bipolar cells - pseudounipolar:

o Appear to have a single projection from the cell
body that divides into two axonal roots
o Have two axons and no true dendrites

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Bipolar Neurons

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Multipolar Neurons
Multiple dendrites arising from many regions of the
cell body and a single axon
Most common cells in the vertebrate nervous system
o Have a variety of shapes and organizations

Specialized to receive and accommodate huge

amounts of synaptic input to their dendrites
Typical spinal motor cell receives approximately 8,000
synapses on its dendrites and 2,000 synapses
on the cell body itself
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Multipolar Neurons

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Part 3:
Membrane Channels

Transmission of Information by Neurons

Neurons function via rapid changes in the
electrical potential across the cell membrane
Electrical potential across a membrane is the
distribution of ions, which creates a difference in
the electrical charge on each side of the cell
membrane

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Transmission of Information by Neurons

Four types of membrane channels allow ions to
flow across the membrane:
1.
2.
3.
4.

Leak channels
Modality-gated channels
Ligand-gated channels
Voltage-gated channels

Gated membrane channels open in response to

a stimulus and close when the stimulus is
removed
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Membrane Channels
All channels serve as openings through the
membrane
When open, ions diffuse through the
channels:
Leak channels: a small number of ions
leak at a slow, continuous rate
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Membrane Channels
Gated membrane channels:
o Modality-gated channels open in response to
mechanical forces, temperature changes, or chemicals
Specific to sensory neurons
o Ligand-gated channels open in response to a
neurotransmitter binding to the surface of a channel
receptor on a postsynaptic cell membrane
o Found on axon and axon terminal
o Receiving info from other neurons
o Neurotransmitter are recieved
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o Voltage-gated channels open in response to changes

Membrane Channels

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Part 4:
Membrane Potentials

Electrical Potentials
Electrical potential: is defined as the
difference in electrical charge, carried by ions,
across a membrane
Rapid change in the electrical charge across the
cell membrane is transmitted along the length of
an axon (way to send signal or information)
o Excites electrically sensitive membrane of a muscle
o Elicits the release of chemical transmitters to other
neurons

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Electrical Potentials
Three types of electrical potentials in neurons are essential for
transmitting information:
A. Resting membrane potential
Electrical difference between inside and outside of cells at rest
-70milivolts
B. Local potential
Depolarization at synapse in dendrite
C. Action potential
Cell body reaches a point
Signal neuron sends to body
Generated by submation

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Resting Membrane Potential

Resting membrane potential: value of the electrical potential across the
membrane when a neuron is not transmitting information (hovers at around
-70mV)
It is a steady-state condition with no net flow of ions across the membrane
Cell at its resting membrane potential will have no net change in the total
distribution of ions across the two sides
o Individual ions may move across through leak channels

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Resting Membrane Potential

When a neuron is resting, the cell membrane
serves as a capacitor, separating the electrical
charges on either side of the plasma membrane.
Unequal distribution of the ionic charge across the
membrane is essential for the neurons to be
excitable

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Resting Membrane Potential

Two forces determine ion distribution across the plasma
membrane:
1. Concentration gradient
Concentration gradient of potassium wants to go out
2. Electrical gradient

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Resting Membrane Potential

Electrochemical gradient in neurons and
membrane resting potential are maintained
by the following factors:

Negatively charged molecules

(anions) trapped inside the neuron
that are too large to diffuse through
the channels
Passive diffusion of ions through
leak channels in the cell membrane
Na+/K+ pump
Active pump
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Resting Membrane Potential

Na+/K+ pump:
o Uses energy from adenosine triphosphate (ATP) to move
ions across the membrane against their electrochemical
gradient
o Carries two K+ into the cell and three Na+ out of the cell
with each cycle
As long as the cell has ATP, an unequal distribution of K +
and Na+ will exist across the membrane

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Changes from Resting Membrane Potential

Sudden, brief changes in membrane potential can occur:
membrane can become depolarized or hyperpolarized
o Depolarized: a decrease in the relative charge of the
potential
For resting membrane potentials, depolarization is
associated with a decrease in the negative charge, or
the charge becoming more positive (If resting is -70,
depolarization would mean moving to 0)
o Hyperpolarized: is an increase in the relative charge of
the potential
For resting membrane potentials, hyperpolarization is
associated with a more negative charge (moving
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even further away from zero).

Changes from Resting Membrane Potential

Modulation: is gradual, longer-lasting changes in membrane
potential-70 to -72 more hyperpolarized and modulated
Can affect the flow of ions across the cell membrane
o Membrane is depolarized - potential becomes less negative than the
resting potential
Increases the likelihood that the neuron will generate a transmittable
electrical signal and is excitatory
More excitable
o Membrane is hyperpolarized - potential becomes more negative than the
resting potential
Decreases the neuron's ability to generate an electrical signal, and is
inhibitory
Less excitable
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Local Potentials
Electrical potentials within each neuron conduct
information in a predictable and consistent
direction
Conduction of information originates with local
potentials at the receiving sites of the neuron:
o Sensory neurons: receiving sites are the sensory
receptors
o Motor and interneurons: receiving sites are on the
postsynaptic membrane
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Local Potentials
Local potentials are categorized as either
receptor potentials or synaptic potentials:
o Receptor potentials: generated at a peripheral receptor
of a sensory neuron (ex. Touch receptor in finger)
o Synaptic potentials: generated at a postsynaptic
membrane (usually dendrites)

Local potentials can only spread passively

they are confined to a small area of the membrane
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Local Potentials
Peripheral receptors have modality-gated ion
channels
Local receptor potentials generated when the
peripheral receptors of a sensory neuron are
stretched, compressed, deformed, or exposed to
thermal or chemical agents
Local synaptic potentials generated in motor
neurons and interneurons when they are stimulated
by input from other neurons
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Local Potentials and Action Potentials

1. Local potential: Initial change in membrane
potential
o Spreads only a short distance along the membrane

2. Action potential: Change from local potentials

results in depolarization
o Brief, large depolarization in electrical potential that
travels the length of the neuron
Can be repeatedly regenerated

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Local Potentials
Local potentials generally travel 1 to 2 mm
o amplitude decreases with distance traveled

Strength of local potentials can be increased and

potentials integrated via temporal and spatial
summation
A. Temporal summation: combined effect of a series of
small potential changes that occur within milliseconds of
each other (ex. Prolonged receptor stimulus)
B. Spatial summation: process by which either receptor or
synaptic potentials generated in different regions of the
neuron are added together (ex. Multiple sites of the
dendrite stimulated simultaneously)
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Local Potentials

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Local Potentials and Action Potentials

Sequence of nerve signal
transmission:
1.Deformation of a peripheral
pressure receptor
2.Change in local membrane
potential of the sensory ending
3.Development of an action potential
in the sensory axon
4.Release of transmitter from the
sensory neuron presynaptic
terminal
5.Binding of transmitter to the ligandgated channel on the post-synaptic
cell membrane

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Action Potentials
Action potential large, depolarizing signal actively
propagated by repeated generation of a signal
o Information is transmitted longer distances than receptor or synaptic
potentials

Meaning of the signal determined by the neural pathway

i.e. where the signal is transmitted

Action potential is all-or-none

o Opposite of local potentials (modulation)
Every time sufficient stimuli are provided, an action potential will be
produced
o Stronger stimuli produce action potentials of the same voltage and
duration as the minimally sufficient stimuli
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Action Potentials
Threshold stimulus intensity: stimulus
intensity sufficient to produce an action
potential
15-mV depolarization is needed

Change in membrane potential from -70 mV

to -55 mV is typically sufficient to trigger an
action potential

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Action Potentials

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Action Potential Refractory Periods

Absolute Refractory Period: represents the
specific amount of time (immediately after an
action potential) before channels can be activated
again for a subsequent action potential
o Time defined by the ion channels,

Relative Refractory Period: period of

hyperpolarization during which the membrane
potential is even more negative than during
resting potential
Can initiate a subsequent action potential during this
period with large stimulus
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Action Potential Refractory Periods

Copyright 2013 by Saunders, an

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imprint of Elsevier Inc.

Propagation of Action Potentials

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Propagation of Action Potentials

Some axons may be specialized for faster action
potential progression because of two structural
adaptations:
1. Increased diameter of the axon
2. Myelination

Water and hose example:

o.A wider hose will pour more water in less time
o.Tape (myelination) around a leaky hose will concentrate
the flow
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Myelination

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Propagation of Action Potentials

Myelination: a sheath of proteins and fats surrounding an
axon
a) Produced by Schwann Cells (peripheral) and Oligodendrocytes
(central)
b) Provides insulation, prevents current flow across the axonal
membrane
c) Increases the speed of action potential propagation and the
distance a current can passively spread
d) Thicker myelin leads to faster conduction and greater chances for
action potential propagation
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Nodes of Ranvier
Nodes of Ranvier: small patches of myelinated axons
which lack myelin
o Distributed every 1 to 2 mm along the axon and contain high densities
of Na+ channels and K+ channels

Saltatory Conduction: Specialized for active propagation

of an action potential by allowing ion flow across the
membrane at only limited sites

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Propagation of Action Potentials

Saltatory Conduction
Action potential spreads rapidly along a
myelinated region, slows and propagated when
crossing node of Ranvier (voltage-gated channels)
Produces quick node-to-node jumping of action
potential down a myelinated axon

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Part 5:
Interactions Between
Neurons

Direction of Information Flow in Neurons

Three functional groups of neurons based on direction of
information flow:
Afferent neurons - carry sensory information from the
outer body toward the central nervous system
Efferent neurons - relay commands from the central
nervous system to smooth and striated muscles and to
glands
Interneurons - act throughout the nervous system,
processing information locally or conveying information
short distances
o largest class of neurons
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Interactions between Neurons

A. Convergence: multiple inputs from a
variety of cells terminate at a single
neuron

B. Divergence: when a single neuronal

axon may have output to many
neurons/cells

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Interactions between Neurons

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Part 6:
Glia

Glia: Supporting Cells

Glial cells: cells which form a critical support
network for neurons
o Glia derived from the Greek word for glue
o Glia also can transmit information

Cells categorized by size and function:

A. Macroglia (large glial cells)
B. Microglia (small glial cells)
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Macroglial Cells
Macroglial cells are classified into three groups:
1. Astrocytes
2. Oligodendrocytes
3. Schwann Cells

Astrocytes: star-shaped macroglia that are the most

abundant cells in the human brain
. found throughout the central nervous system and
function in cell signaling
o. Provide nutrients to other cells
o. Help maintain extracellular ion balance
o. Role in cell signaling: can be stimulated by signals from adjacent
neurons or by mechanical changes
o. Stimulated astrocytes spread waves of Ca2+ to neighboring
astrocytes through gap junctions
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Astrocytes
Astrocytes act as scavengers, taking up extra K+ ions in the
extracellular environment, removing chemical transmitters from the
synaptic cleft between neurons, and cleaning up other debris in the
extracellular space

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Macroglial Cells
Myelin sheath is formed by oligodendrocytes
and Schwann cells:
Oligodendrocytes myelinate neurons in the CNS
Schwann cells myelinate neurons in the PNS

Axon is myelinated when the sheath wraps

completely around the axon
o Partial covering means axon is unmyelinated
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Microglial Cells
Microglia act as the CNS immune system
Function as phagocytes
Activated during CNS development and following
injury, infection, or disease
Proteins in dying cells attract microglia to the site
o Microglia clean up and remove debris

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Part 7:
Neuroinflammation

Neuroinflammation: Beneficial and Harmful Effects

Neuroinflammation: CNSs response to
infections, diseases and injuries
Beneficial effect: Initiates intervention by microglia
Causes clean up and removal of debris

Harmful effects:
Increased activity can cause death of healthy neurons and
oligodendrocytes, and inhibition of neural regeneration
Correlation between abnormal glial activity and neural
damage in stroke, Alzheimers disease, Parkinsons
disease, and multiple sclerosis
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Neuroinflammation

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Peripheral Neuropathy
Peripheral neuropathy is any pathologic change
involving the peripheral nerves
Result of trauma, metabolic abnormalities, disease
Often involve destruction of the myelin surrounding
the largest, most myelinated sensory and motor
fibers
Results in disrupted sense of touch and
proprioception (awareness of limb position),
numbness and weakness
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Guillain-Barr Syndrome
Involves acute inflammation and
demyelination of peripheral
sensory and motor fibers
Typically occurs 2 to 3 weeks after
a mild infection
o In 2/3 of cases it is preceded by an
intestinal infection that activates the
immune system causing production
of an antibody that mistakenly crossreacts with the myelin sheath
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Guillain-Barr Syndrome
Clinical:
Patients may have difficulty with chewing, swallowing,
speaking, and facial expressions
Pain can be prominent
o Patients most often report deep aching pain or hypersensitivity to touch

Onset is rapid, but followed by plateau then gradual recovery

o Recovery is usually complete

Treatment may include plasmapheresis and intravenous

immunoglobulin therapy;
o Physical rehabilitation is also recommended

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Multiple Sclerosis
Clincal:
Immune system produces antibodies that attack
oligodendrocytes, producing plaques in the white matter of
the CNS
Signs and symptoms:
Weakness, lack of coordination, impaired vision, double vision, impaired
sensation, and slurred speech
Disruption of memory and emotions also possible

Diagnosis is difficult MS usually manifests with one sign

that may completely resolve
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Multiple Sclerosis
Onset common between 20 and 40 years
o Women are three times more frequently affected

Four subtypes of MS:

All named according to the course of disease
progression:
1.
2.
3.
4.

Relapsing/remitting
Secondary progressive
Primary progressive
Progressive relapsing

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Multiple Sclerosis

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Multiple Sclerosis

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Multiple Sclerosis
Physical rehabilitation helpful to maintain or improve
physical function
Patients should avoid high temperatures and excessive
exertion
Ensure adequate vitamin D3 (get sunlight!)
Stress management
Regular exercise
Proper medical management to try to slow disease progression

Medication can improve quality of life

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Neural Stem Cells

Immature and undifferentiated cells are precursors
to both neurons and glial cells
Characteristics include the ability to:
o Self-renew,
o Differentiate into most types of neurons and glial cells
o Populate developing and degenerating regions of the CNS

Neural stem cells in the healthy mature brain are

involved in forming memories and learning new
tasks;
o Excitement over the possible rehabilitation implications
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