Cell Biology

Introduction
Cells vary considerable in size,
shape, and function.
The shape of cells in the body vary
based on their function

Composite Cell

Because cells vary so greatly in size,

shape, content, and function,
describing a typical cell is impossible.
All of the structures described in the
composite cell can NOT be found in
every cell regardless of function.
3 major parts: plasma membrane,
cytoplasm and nucleus

General Facts

Made up primarily of four elements: carbon,

oxygen, hydrogen and nitrogen
Living cells are about 60% water
Constantly bathe in a diluted saltwater
solution derived from the blood Interstitial
fluid
Vary in length 2 micrometers to over 3 feet
Comes in different shape
Three main regions: nucleus, cell membrane
and cytoplasm

Cell Organelles
1.
2.
3.

4.
5.
6.
7.
8.

Cell Membrane
Cytoplasm
Endoplasmic
reticulum (ER)
Ribosomes
Golgi Apparatus
Mitochondria
Lysosomes
Peroxisomes

9.

10.
11.
12.
13.
14.
15.
16.

Microfilaments and
Mircotubules
Centrosomes
Cilia and flagella
Vesicles
Nucleus
Nuclear envelope
Nucleolus
Chromatin

Cell Membrane (Plasma

Membrane)

Extremely thin and semipermeable.

The cell membrane contains many kinds of
proteins, each with a special function.
Function: The membrane allows some
substances to enter and leave the cell but not
others, participates in signal transduction, and
helps cells adhere to other cells. The membrane
forms a boundary around the cellular contents,,
and the basic structure of the cell membrane is
a lipid-protein bilayer.
Structure: The basic framework of the cell
membrane consists of a (bilayer) double layer of
phospholipid, with fatty acid tails turned in.

Cell Membrane

The Phosphate Head is

HYDROPHILIC meaning "WATER
LOVING". Because of its hydrophilic
nature, the head of a Phospholipid
will orient itself so that it is as close
as possible to water molecules.
The Lipid Tails are HYDROPHOBIC
meaning "WATER-FEARING", the
Hydrophobic tails will tend to orient
themselves away from water.

Cytoplasm

The cytoplasm consists of a clear

liquid called cytosol, a supportive
cytoskeleton, and networks of
membranes and organelles.
Cell activities occur mainly in the
cytoplasm, where nutrients are
received, processed, and used.

Cytoskeleton

Network of protein filaments

within some cells that helps the
cell maintain its shape and is
involved in many forms of cell
movement.

Cytoplasm

Material inside the cell

membrane not including the
nucleus.

Endoplasmic Reticulum

ER is made up of membrane-bounded
flatten sacs and elongated canals. ER
provides a tubular transport system inside
the cell.
Rough ER: Has ribosomes on its outer layer
What does it function in the synthesis and
transport of? PROTEIN
Smooth ER: No ribosomes. What does it
function in the transport of? LIPIDS
Vesicles that have a role in secretion are
formed by the ER.

Endoplasmic Reticulum

Internal membrane system in

cells in which lipid components
of the cell membrane are
assembled and some proteins
are modified.

Ribosomes

They are found in the cytoplasm

and ER
They composed of Protein and RNA
molecules.
Function is protein synthesis.

Ribosome

Small particle in the cell on

which proteins are assembled;
made of RNA and protein.

Popeye is active because he eats

spinach.
However, for Popeye's cells to be active,
his ribosomes help create proteins.

Golgi Apparatus

They are composed of about 6 flattened,

membranous sacs.
Function is to refine, package, and deliver
proteins synthesized on ribosomes, and it
packages the cells products.
Vesicles that have a role in secretion are
formed by the golgi apparatus (and ER).
Plays a central role in the transport of new
molecules from inside to outside the cell.

Golgi Apparatus

Stack of membranes in the cell that

modifies, sorts, and packages
proteins from the endoplasmic
reticulum.

Mitochondria

Is the POWERHOUSE of the cell and

contain enzymes that catalyze
reactions that release energy from
nutrients needed for aerobic
respiration.
Enzyme is a protein that catalyzes a
specific biochemical reaction.
Adenosine Triphosphate (ATP) energy.

Mitochondrion

Cell organelle that converts the

chemical energy stored in food into
compounds that are more convenient
for the cell to use.

Lysosomes

The "garbage disposals of the cell

They contain powerful enzymes to
break up old cell components and
bacteria. Example white blood cells
can engulf bacteria to fight
bacterial infections.

Lysosome

Cell organelle filled with

enzymes needed to break down
certain materials in the cell.

Peroxisomes

Membranous sacs are abundant in

liver and kidney cells.
They contain enzymes that
function in the synthesis of bile
acids, breakdown of lipids,
degradation of rare biochemicals,
and detoxification of alcohol.

Microfilaments and
microtubules

Thin, threadlike processes within the

cytoplasm that function in various kinds
of cell movement and that serve as the
cytoskeleton of the cell.
Microfilaments, made of the protein
actin, cause various cellular
movements.
Mictotubules, made of the globular
protein tubulin. Form 9+2 pattern.

Centrosome

is a structure made up of two

hollow cylinders called centrioles.
Function in cell reproduction.

Cilia and flagella

They are motile extensions from

the cell.
Cilia is short and move to-andfro.
Cilia function is to move fluids.
Flagella are longer and move in an
undulating wavelike motion.

Vesicles

are formed by part of the cell

membrane.
They contain some liquid or solid
material formerly outside the cell.
Golgi and ER also form vesicles.

Vacuole

Cell organelle that stores

materials such as water, salts,
proteins, and carbohydrates.

Nucleus, nuclear envelope

Is bounded by a double-layered
nuclear membrane (nuclear
envelope) containing relatively
large nuclear pores that allow the
passage of certain substances.

Nuclear Envelope

Layer of two membranes that

surrounds the nucleus of the
cell.

Nucleolus

Is a small, dense body composed

mainly of RNA.
Has no surrounding membrane.
Ribosomes form in the nucleolus.

Nucleolus

Small, dense region within

most nuclei in which the
assembly of proteins begins.

Chromatin

Consist of loosely coiled fibers of

DNA and protein called
chromosomes.
Granular material visible within the
nucleus; consists of DNA tightly
coiled around proteins.

Chromatin

Chromosome

Threadlike structure within the

nucleus containing the genetic
information that is passed from
one generation of cells to the
next.

1. Nucleolus
2Nucleus
3Ribosomes(little dots)
4Vesicle
5Rough endoplasmic
reticulum
6Golgi apparatus
7Cytoskeleton
8Smooth endoplasmic
reticulum
9Mitochondria
10Vacuole
11Cytosol
12Lysosome
13CentrioleswithinCentroso
me
14Cell membrane

Movements through cell

membranes

1.
2.

3.
4.

Passive
mechanisms do
not require
energy.
Diffusion
Facilitated
diffusion
Osmosis
Filtration

1.
2.
3.

Active
mechanisms
require cell
energy.
Active transport
Endocytosis
Exocytosis

Passive

Diffusion is the process by which

molecules or ions scatter or spread
spontaneously from high
concentration to low concentration.
Oxygen and carbon dioxide can
diffuse readily through the cell
membrane.
Equilibrium is reached.

Simple Diffusion
movement of substances from regions of higher concentration to
regions of lower concentration
oxygen, carbon dioxide and lipid-soluble substances

46

Passive

Substances that are not able to

pass through the lipid bilayer need
the help of membrane proteins to
get across, this is called facilitated
diffusion.
Carrier molecules revolving doors
are used to carry large molecules
(glucose) across the membrane.

Facilitated Diffusion
diffusion across a membrane with the help of a channel or carrier
molecule
glucose and
amino acids

48

Passive

Osmosis is the diffusion of water.

Solutions with a higher osmotic pressure
than body fluids are called hypertonic.
Solutions with a osmotic pressure equal
to body fluids are called isotonic.
Solutions with a lower osmotic pressure
than body fluids are called hypotonic.

Osmosis
movement of water through a selectively permeable
membrane from regions of higher concentration to regions
of lower concentration
water moves toward a higher concentration of solutes

51

Osmosis
Osmotic Pressure ability of osmosis to generate enough pressure to
move a volume of water
Osmotic pressure increases as the concentration of nonpermeable solutes
increases
hypertonic higher
osmotic pressure
hypotonic lower
osmotic pressure
isotonic same osmotic
pressure

52

Passive

When fluid is forced through a

membrane by hydrostatic or blood
pressure, the mechanism is called
filtration.
Edema excess tissue fluid.

Filtration
smaller molecules are forced through porous membranes
hydrostatic pressure important in the body
molecules leaving blood capillaries

54

Active

Active transport is a process that

moves particles through
membranes from a region of low
concentration to high concentration.
Equilibrium is never reached.
sugars, amino acids, sodium ions,
potassium ions, etc

Active

1.

2.

3.

In endocytosis molecules that are too large to

be transported by other means are engulfed
by portion of the cell membrane and carried
into the cell surrounded by a vesicle.
Pinocytosis is a form in which cells engulf
liquids.
Phagocytosis is a form in which the cell takes
in larger particles, such as a white blood cell
engulfing a bacterium.
Receptor-mediated is a form in which receptors
bind specific particles, and they are drawn into
the cell.

Exocytosis

reverse of endocytosis
substances in a vesicle fuse with cell membrane
contents released outside the cell
release of neurotransmitters from nerve cells

58

The Cell Cycle

The series of changes a cell undergoes

from the time it is formed until it
reproduces is called the cell cycle.
The cell cycle is highly regulated. Most
cells do not divide continually. Cells have a
maximum number of
times they can
divide because of built-in clocks called
telomeres on the tips of chromosomes.
Mitosis cell division to form new cells
(body cells).
Meiosis cell division that forms sex cells
(gametes).

Mitosis (IPMAT)
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.

Interphase
Prophase
Metaphase
Anaphase
Telophase

Mitosis

Interphase is a period of great

metabolic activity in which the cell
grows and synthesizes new molecules
and organelles. During the S phase of
interphase, the DNA of the cell is
replicated in preparation for cell
division.

Interphase

very active period

cell grows
cell maintains routine functions
cell replicates genetic material to prepare for nuclear division
cell synthesizes new organelles to prepare for cytoplasmic division
phases
G phases cell grows and synthesizes structures other
than DNA
S phase cell replicates DNA

62

Prophase chromosomes and centrioles

become visible and the nuclear envelope
and the nucleolus disappear.
Metaphase the chromosomes line up in the
middle of the cell. Spindle fibers are
connected to the centromeres of each
chromosome.
Anaphase centromeres are pulled apart
and chromosomes move in opposite
directions.
Telophase chromosomes change back into
chromatin. Nuclear envelope and nucleolus
re-form. Cell membrane pinches.

Cytokinesis is the division of

cytoplasm.

Control of Cell Division

cell division capacities vary greatly among cell types

skin and blood cells divide often and continually

neuron cells divide a specific number of times then cease

chromosome tips (telomeres) that shorten with each mitosis provide

a mitotic clock
cells divide to provide a more favorable surface area to volume
relationship
growth factors and hormones stimulate cell division

hormones stimulate mitosis of smooth muscle cells in uterus

epidermal growth factor stimulates growth of new skin

contact (density dependent) inhibition

tumors are the consequence of a loss of cell cycle control

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Cell Death

Apoptosis is a form of cell death that is

actually a normal part of development,
sculpting organs from overgrown
tissues.
In the fetus, apoptosis carves away
webbing between developing fingers
and toes.
Apoptosis follows a sunburn it peels
away cells so damaged that they might
otherwise turn cancerous.

Cancer
Cancer cells spread to distant
areas (metastasize), display
excessive growth
(hyperplasia), and exhibit
properties found in earlier
stages (de-differentiation).