Lesson Objective: Explain cell division

12.1: The concept of cell division

Cell division is a process of how new cells
are produced from a single cell.
There are 2 types of cell division:
i. mitosis
ii. Meiosis
Mitosis produces 2 daughter cells that
contain the same chromosome number as
the parent cell.
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 Meiosis produces 4 daughter cells & each

of their chromosome number is half of the
parent cells chromosome number.
Cell division in eukaryote involves
karyokinesis & cytokinesis.
First, karyokinesis starts the cell division
by dividing & distributing the genetic
material, which is nuclear division
(mitosis).
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 This is followed by cytokinesis which is the

division of the cytoplasm.
The process of cell division in prokaryote &
eukaryote share 3 basic features:
i) New cells have a complete set of genetic
material that is identical to the parent cell
in mitosis.
ii) New cells gain important cytoplasmic
material from the parent
cell.
iii) Activities in the cell from one phase to
another phase that complete a cell cycle.
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Eukaryotic Chromosome
The complete complement of an organisms
genes or an organisms genetic material is
known as genome.
A typical human cell, has about 3m of DNA.
The DNA molecules are packaged into
chromosomes.
Every eukaryotic species has a number of
chromosomes in each cell nucleus.

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 For e.g. the nuclei of human somatic cells

(all body cells except the reproductive
cells) contain 46 chromosomes (diploid no.
= 2n).
Reproductive cells (gametes) sperm cells
& egg cells have half as many
chromosome as somatic cells, or 23
chromosomes in humans (haploid no. = n).

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 Human cells normally contain 23 pairs of chromosomes,

for a total of 46 chromosomes in each cell.

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 One DNA molecule contains hundreds or

thousand of genes.
Before a cell can divide, all DNA must be
duplicated or replicated.
DNA is associated with various proteins to
maintain its structure & to control the genes
activities.
When a cell is not undergoing division, the DNAprotein complex is known as chromatin (is
organized into a long, thin fiber).

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 DNA molecules are tightly packed into

chromosomes during cell division.
Before karyokinesis takes place, DNA
replicates & the cell is ready for division.
Each chromosome has 2 identical
chromosome called sister chromatids.
The DNA will coil around histone
proteins to form nucleosomes.
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 A duplicated chromosome contain 2

chromatid.
Sister chromatids are defined as
replicated form of a chromosome
attached together by centromere &
finally separated during mitosis &
meiosis.
The character of sister chromatids are
as follow.
i) They contain exactly the same
genes (genetically identical).
ii) They are constricted & joined to
each other at the centromere.
iii) They are separated during
karyokinesis at the centromeres ( 2
chromatids).
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Lesson Objective: Explain the stages in cell cycle

12.2: CELL CYCLE

The period from the moment a new cell is
produced until the cell completes its
division is known as cell cycle.
A cell cycle has 2 main stages:
i. the mitotic phase
ii. The interphase

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 The mitotic phase (m phase) consists of

mitosis & cytokinesis. It is the shortest
part of a cell cycle.
It alternates with the interphase, the
longest part (90% of the cycle).
Interphase consists of 3 sub-phases:
i. G1 phase (first gap)
ii. S phase (synthesis stage)
iii. G2 phase (second gap)
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Main events in a cell

cycle
G1 Phase

Longest time taken. The duration of G1

may vary from hours to months.
The cell grows in size & develops.
Additional organelles are synthesised.
Nucleus grows larger due to the synthesis
of mRNA, rRNA & tRNA.
Protein is manufactured at the ribosomes.
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S Phase
DNA synthesis when replication
occurs.
Sister chromatids are formed but are
still in form of loosely packed
chromatin fiber.
Protein are associated with DNA in
eukaryotic chromosomes.

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G2 Phase
Further synthesis of organelles occur.
Metabolic events occur in preparation for
mitosis.
Synthesis of microtubule for the development of
spindle fibers.
The chromosomes commence the long process
of condensing, coiling ever more tightly.

M Phase
Mitosis & cytokinesis.
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Lesson Objective: Describe the four stages of the mitotic cell

division

12.3: MITOSIS
= Nuclear division in which replicated
chromosomes separated to form two
genetically identical daughter nuclei.
When accompanied by cytokinesis, it
produces 2 identical daughter cells.
Mitosis involves 2 phases:
i.
nucleus division (karyokinesis)
ii.
Cytoplasm division (cytokinesis)
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Lesson Objective: Describe the four stages of the mitotic cell

division

Mitosis is divided into 4 distinct stages:

a. Prophase
b. Metaphase
c. Anaphase
d. Telophase
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MITOSIS
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Lesson Objective: Explain the behaviour of the

chromosomes at each stage.

Prophase
Chromosomes become shorten &
thicken (condense).
The chromosome are seen to
consist of two chromatids joined
by a centromere.
The centrioles move apart toward
opposite poles of the cell.
Spindle fibers are produced &
extend from each centrosomes.
The nuclear membrane starts to
disappear.
The nucleolus is no longer visible.
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Spindle pole

Spindle fiber

Centromere

Metaphase
Metaphase is the shortest
phase.
All the chromosomes line up
along the metaphase plate at
the equator of cell and
prepare to split.
The spindle fibers from each
centriole are attached to the
centromeres of the
centrosomes.
Chromosome

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Anaphase
The centromeres split, and the
sister chromatids separate as
each is pulled to an opposite
poles.
Once separated, the chromatid
are called chromosomes.
As the chromosomes are pulled
by the spindle fibers, they appear
V-shaped because the
centromeres lead the way &
seem to drag the trailing arms of
the chromosomes toward the
pole.
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Telophase
Chromosomes reach poles
of cell.
Nuclear envelope reform.
Nucleolus reappears.
Chromosomes decondense
(uncoil & lengthen), thus
becoming invisible again.
The division of one nucleus
into 2 genetically identical
nuclei, is now complete.

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Lesson Objective: Describe briefly the cytokinesis

process

Cytokinesis

= cytoplasm

division

In animal cells, cytokinesis occurs by a

process known as a cleavage.
The first sign of cleavage is the
appearance of a cleavage furrow, which
begins as a shallow groove on the cell
surface.
The cleavage furrow deepens until the cell
is pinched in two
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 Cytokinesis in plant cells, which have cell walls,

does not involve the cleavage furrow.
Instead, during telophase, vesicles derived from
Golgi apparatus move along microtubules to
the middle of the cell producing a cell plate.
Cell wall materials carried in the vesicles collect
in the cell plate as it grows.
The cell plate enlarges until its surrounding
membrane fuses with the plasma membrane.

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 Two daughter cells result, each with

its own plasma membrane.
After cytokinesis there are 2 new &
separate cells, each with equal
portions of cytoplasm & organelles &
identical sets of chromosomes.
When cytokinesis is complete,
interphase begins.
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Lesson Objective:Compare the cell division in animal

and plant cell

Differences between
mitosis in plant & animal
cells
Animal cell
Plant cell
Spindle fibers consist
of the centriole.
Cytokinesis occurs by
the constriction of
microtubules
cleavage furrow.

Do not form centrioles.

Cytokinesis occurs by
the growth of a cell
plate through the fusion
of vesicles.

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Lesson Objective: State the significance of mitosis

Significance of mitosis
1. Genetic stability
Mitosis produces 2 nuclei which have the
same number of chromosomes as the parent
cell.
Daughter cells are genetically identical to the
parent cell & no variation.
This results in genetic stability within
population of cells derived from the same
parental cells.

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2. Growth
The number of cells within an organism
increases by mitosis & this is the basis of
growth in multicellular organisms.
3. Cell Replacement.
To repair worn out or damaged cells.

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4. Regeneration
Some animals are able to regenerate whole
parts of the body, such as legs in Crustacea &
arms in Starfish.
Production of the new cells involves mitosis.

5. Asexual reproduction
Mitosis is the basis of asexual repreduction, the
production of new individuals of a species by
one parent organism.
E.g. in Amoeba.

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12.4: MEIOSIS
The nuclei of human somatic cells are
diploid.
Diploid cells are contain 2 sets of
chromosomes.
1 set from male gamete paternal
chromosome.
1 set from female gamete maternal
chromosome.
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 A human cell contains 46

chromosomes;
23 chromosomes from
maternal &
23 chromosomes from
paternal.

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Homologous chromosomes
Refers to a pair of
chromosomes that has
the same length,
shape &assortment of
genes. And they line
up with each other at
meiosis.
So, human somatic
cells have 23 +23
homologous
chromosomes.
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How meiosis reduces

chromosome number
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Lesson Objective: Explain and compare the processes

in meiosis I and meiosis II

Meiosis
= meiosis (meio, to reduce) is a form of nuclear

division in which the chromosomes number is

halved from the diploid number (2n) to the haploid
number (n).
Meiosis consists of a two-part of nuclear division:
i. meiosis I reduces the no. of chromosomes.
ii. Meiosis II divides double-stranded
chromosomes to single strands.

Meiosis occurs during the formation of sperm &

eggs (gametogenesis) in animals & during spore
formation in plants.

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Lesson Objective: Explain the position and changes of the

chromosomes at each stage.

MEIOSIS I
Interphase
Interphase
11

This process is similar to the

chromosomes replication
preceding mitosis.

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Prophase
Prophase II
Nucleolus disappears.
Nuclear envelope
fragments.
Centrioles migrate
away from each other.
Spindle fibers
assemble.
Chromosomes begin
to condense.
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 Homologous
chromosomes,
each consisting of
two sister
chromatids, pair
up the process
is called synapsis
& a tetrad is
formed.
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 At various places along their length,

chromatids of homologous
chromosomes are crisscrossed
(crossing one another ).
The point of contact between paired
chromatids during meiosis is called
chiasmata.
Chromosomes have traded segments
at the chiasmata crossing over.

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Lesson Objective: Explain five stages in prophase I

Stages in Prophase 1
In meiosis 1 the prophase is more
complex than that of mitosis.
Five different stages can be differentiated;
1. Leptotene
Chromosomes appear as single threads.
Spindle starts to form.

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2. Zygotene
Nucleolus has
disappeared.
Homologous pairs of
chromosomes
associate forming a
bivalent or tetrad
( consist of 4
chromatids) in a
process known as
synapsis.

Homologous
chromosome
Chiasma

Recombinant
chromatid
Only one chiasma is illustrated
but many occur per pair

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3. Pachytene
Chromatids become visible as they move
apart from each other; they remain in
contact at points called chiasmata.

4. Diplotene
Chromatids continue to move apart as
they shorten & thicken.

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5. Diakinesis
Shortening & thickening continues.
Chiasmata move to ends.
Crossing over has occurred.
Nuclear envelope breaks down.

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Metaphase
Metaphase II
The bivalents (homologous pairs) become
arrange on the metaphase plate of the
spindle.
Microtubules from one pole of the cell are
attached to one chromosome of each pair,
while microtubules from the opposite pole
are attached to the homologue.

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Metaphase 1
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Anaphase 1

Anaphase
Anaphase 11
Spindle fibres pull homologous chromosomes,
centromeres first, towards opposite poles of the
spindle.
This separates the chromosomes into 2 haploid
seta, one set at each end of the spindle.
Each chromosome still has two chromatids.

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Telophase
Telophase II
The arrival of homologous
chromosomes at opposite
poles.
Each pole has a haploid
chromosome set, but each
chromosome still has 2 sister
chromatids.
Usually cytokinesis occurs
simultaneously with telophase
I, forming 2 daughter cells.
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Interkinesi
Interkinesi
ss
This period between meiosis I & meiosis Ii
is similar to interphase of mitosis.
However, no DNA replication occurs.

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MEIOSIS II
Prophase
Prophase IIII
A new set of
spindle fibers
forms & the
chromosomes
begin to move
toward the equator
of the cell.
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Metaphase
Metaphase IIII
Chromosome
line up at
metaphase
plate.

Metaphase II
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Anaphase II

Anaphase
Anaphase IIII

The centromeres split & spindle

fibers shorten, pull the
chromosome to opposite poles.

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Telophase
Telophase IIII
The chromosomes uncoil,
lengthen & become very
indistinct.
The spindle fibers
disappear.
Nuclei begin to form at
opposite poles of the cell &
cytokinesis occurs.
There are now 4 daughter
cells, each with the haploid
number of chromosomes.
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Lesson Objective: State the significance of meiosis.

Importance of meiosis
1.Meiosis ensures the constant chromosomal
number is maintained from one generation to the
next. This is done by the fusion of haploid
gametes to produce diploid organism.
2.Meiosis is important in genetic variation by
producing new combinations of chromosomes &
new combination alleles at different genetic loci.

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Lesson Objective: Compare meiosis and mitosis

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