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d x 2m
2 E V ( x) x 0
2
dx
V = 0, 0 < x < a
V for x < 0 and x > a
If we assume E is finite, so
(x) = 0 outside of well
n
k
, n 1,2,3....
L
2 k 2 n 2 2 2 n 2 h 2
E
2
2m
2mL
8mL2
2
nx
sin
, n = 1,2,3,...
L L
n y
n x
n z
kx
, ky
, kz
nx , n y , nz 1,2,3....
L
L
L
2
2
2
2 2
(nx2 n y2 nz2 )h 2
2 k 2 (nx n y nz )
E
2
2m
2mL
8mL2
n yy
nxx
nzz
8
sin
sin
sin
L
Lx L y Lz
y
Lz
Lx
n y
n x
n z
k
ax
ay
az
Lx
Ly
Lz
ax,ay,az unit vectors along kspace coordinate axes.
Each point corresponds one
state of the system
2mE
2mE
k 2 ,k
2
2
2m 1 1
dk
. .
dE
2
2 E
m 2mE
4
3/ 2
g ( E )dE
dE
(
2
m
)
E dE
2 3
3
h
Problems
1. An electron is bound in a one dimensional potential well with a width
of 100. Determine the electron energy levels for n=1,2,3.
2. Calculate lowest energy level for a neutron in a nucleus, by
considering it as if it were in an infinite well of width equal to 10 -14m.
Compare this with the lowest energy level for an electron in the same
potential well.
3. Consider a particle with mass 10g in an infinite potential well 1.0 cm
wide. If energy of the particle is 1mJ, calculate the value of n for that
state. Would quantum effect be observable for this particle?
4. Calculate the density of states per unit volume with energies between
0 and 1eV.
f (E)
1
1 e
E EF
kT
f ( E EF )
1
0
1 exp ()
f ( E EF )
1
1
1 exp ()
E
EF
f(E)
Boltzmann approximation
If
E EF kT
E EF
exp
1
then
kT
( E EF )
Thus the following approximation is fvalid:
( E ) exp
kT
Exercise:
Kronig-Penney model
Solution of equation
Ref- pg.41-43, Neamen
Schrodingers equation
2mE
h2
mVba sin a
cos a cos ka
2
h a
h2
2
E
k
,
2
8m
E
h2
k
2
k 4m
2E
h2 1
,
2
2
k
4 m
h2
m 2
4
2E
2
k
E Ec C1k ,
2
2E
h2 1
,
2
2
*
k
4 m
2E
2C1
2
k
h2
m
4 2
E Ev C2 k ,
2
2C1
2E
h2 1
,
2
2
*
k
4 m
2E
2C2
2
k
h2
m 2
4
2C2
F eE m*a
a
eE
m*
K-space diagram
GaAs
Silicon
conduction band
hk
8 2 mn*
h2k 2
E Ev 2 *
8 m p
h2k 2
E Ec 2 *
8 mn
h2k 2
Ev E 2 *
8 m p
E Ec
4 (2mn* ) 3 / 2
g (E)
E
h3
4 (2mn* ) 3 / 2
gc (E )
E Ec
3
h
Free electron
g (E)
4 (2m*p ) 3 / 2
gv (E )
h
4 (2m*p ) 3 / 2
h
E
Ev E
Work out:
n( E )dE g ( E ) f ( E )dE
n0 g c ( E ) f ( E )dE
gc(E)=density of state in conduction band
4 (2mn* )3 / 2
gc (E)
h3
E Ec
1 exp
1
( E EF )
exp
E EF
kT
kT
4 (2mn ) 3 / 2
n0
3
h
Ec
( E EF )
E Ec exp
dE
kT
E Ec
1
, dx
dE or dE kT .dx
kT
kT
E Ec x kT
Let x
4 (2mn ) 3 / 2
( Ec E F )
n0
kT
.
kT
exp
h3
kT
( E EF )
kT
( E Ec )
kT
.e
( Ec E F )
kT
e .e
( Ec E F )
kT
x exp( x)dx
(n) x n 1e x dx
x exp( x)dx
2
(n 1) n(n)
12
( ) x
3
2
e dx x1/ 2e x dx
( 3 / 2 ) 1 x
( 32 ) (1 12 ) 12 ( 12 )
1
2
4 (2mn ) 3 / 2
( Ec E F )
n0
kT
.
kT
exp
3
h
kT
2( )3 / 2 (2mn )3 / 2
( Ec E F )
3/ 2
n0
(
kT
)
exp
3
h
kT
(2mn kT )3 / 2
( Ec E F )
n0 2
exp
h3
kT
( Ec E F )
n0 N c exp
kT
(2mnkT )3 / 2
Effective density of state function
N c 2
3
h
Nc=2.51019cm-3 at T=300K assuming mn*=me
Lecture-7
p0 g v ( E )(1 f ( E ))dE
gv(E)=density of state in valence band
gv (E)
4 (2m*p ) 3 / 2
h3
Ev E
1 f (E) 1
1
1
( EF E )
exp
kT
E EF
EF E
1 exp
1 exp
kT
kT
p0
4 (2mp ) 3 / 2
Ev
h3
( EF E )
Ev E exp
dE
kT
Ev E
1
, dy
dE or dE kT .dy
kT
kT
Ev E y kT
Let y
p0
( EF E )
kT
4 (2mp ) 3 / 2
h
( Ev E )
kT
.e
( E F Ev )
kT
e .e
( E F Ev )
kT
( E F Ev )
kT .kT exp
kT
y exp( y )dy
y exp( y )dy
( E F Ev )
p0 N v exp
kT
N v 2
( Ec E F )
n0 N c exp
kT
(2mnkT ) 3 / 2
N c 2
h3
(2mp kT )3 / 2
h3
ni = pi
Let EFi be the intrinsic Fermi level position
( Ec EFi )
ni N c exp
kT
( EFi Ev )
pi N v exp
kT
Eg
( Ec Ev )
ni pi N c N v exp
N c N v exp
kT
kT
N
exp
v
kT
kT
EFi
1
Ec Ec 1 kT ln N v
2
2
Nc
m*p
1
3
EFi Ec Ec kT ln *
m
2
4
n
If effective mass of electron and hole are same.
E Fi
1
Ec Ec
2
Work out:
3. Find the intrinsic carrier concentration at (a) T=200K and T=400K.
ni = pi
Let EFi be the intrinsic Fermi level position
( Ec EFi )
ni N c exp
kT
( EFi Ev )
pi N v exp
kT
Eg
( Ec Ev )
ni pi N c N v exp
N c N v exp
kT
kT
N
exp
v
kT
kT
EFi
1
Ec Ec 1 kT ln N v
2
2
Nc
m*p
1
3
EFi Ec Ec kT ln *
m
2
4
n
If effective mass of electron and hole are same.
E Fi
1
Ec Ec
2
Heavily doped
EF
Ec
EF
Ed
Ev
Ec
Ed
Ev
nd
Nd
1
E d EF
1 exp
2
kT
nd N d N d
kT
( Ec E Fi ) ( E F E Fi )
n0 N c exp
kT
( Ec E Fi )
( E F E Fi )
n0 N c exp
exp
kT
kT
( E F EFi )
n0 ni exp
kT
( E F Ev )
p0 N v exp
kT
( EFi Ev ) ( EFi E F )
p0 N v exp
kT
( EFi Ev )
( EFi E F )
p0 N v exp
exp
kT
kT
( E Fi E F )
p0 ni exp
kT
n0p0 product
( EF EFi )
n0 ni exp
kT
( E Fi E F )
p0 ni exp
kT
( EF EFi )
( EFi E F )
n0 p0 ni exp
ni exp
kT
kT
n0 p0 n
2
i
Charge Neutrality
Compensated semiconductor:
Contains both donor and acceptor impurity atoms in same region.
If Nd> Na
n-type
if Na> Nd
p-type
if Na= Nd
intrinsic
n0 N a p0 N d
n0 ( N a pa ) p0 ( N d nd )
N N d and N N a
n0 N a p0 N d
2
n
n0 p0 ni2 p0 i
n0
ni2
n0 N a
Nd
n0
n ( N d N a )n0 n 0
2
0
2
i
(Nd Na )
Nd Na
2
n0
ni
2
2
(Na Nd )
Na Nd
2
p0
ni
2
2
Lecture-10
Position of Fermi energy level
( Ec E F )
n0 N c exp
kT
n0
( Ec E F )
exp
kT
Nc
Nc
n0
Ec E F kTln
If Nd>>ni and Na= 0, n0=Nd
Nc
Ec E F kTln
Nd
( E F Ev )
p0 N v exp
kT
Nv
E F Ev kTln
Na
( E F EFi )
n0 ni exp
kT
( E Fi E F )
p0 ni exp
kT
n0
E F EFi kTln
ni
p0
EFi E F kTln
ni
The distance between the Fermi level and the intrinsic Fermi level
near mid gap is a logarithmic function of doping concentration
Carrier Transport
There are mainly two modes of transport
(a) Drift
(b) Diffusion
l1 l2 l3 ..... ln
lc
n
Mean free time
Or Relaxation time
1 2 3 ..... n
c
n
Thermal velocity
1 2 3
mvth kT
2
2
vth 107 cm / sec
lc 10 5 cm(100nm)
c 10 12 sec(THz )
vth
lc
c
lc
lc
plc A
No of carriers moving to right =
2
pl
pv
v = vth under equilibrium
Flux
F F c
2 c
2
=
Fnet F F 0
p1v
p2 v
F
and F
2
2
Fnet F F
p1 p2 v
2
Diffusion
Fnet F F
p v1 v2
2
Drift
Drift
Fnet F F
p v1 v2
2
vmax vth a c
vth vth a c
a c
v1
vth
2
2
a c
v2 vth
2
lc
lc
p v1 v2 pa c
2
2
qpa c
p
J drift q Fnet
2
qE
a *
mp
Fnet
p
drift
qp c qE
2m*p
p
J drift
qp p E
Mobility of hole
q c
p
2m*p
Mobility of electron
q c
n
2mn*
n
J drift
( q )n n E qn n E
Mobility
Lecture-12
L T
T 3/ 2
I
NI
NI total number of ionized impurity
J q ( p p n n ) E E
q ( p p n n )
1
1
q ( p p n n )
For a p-type semiconductor
q ( p p n n ) q p p q p N a
onsidering equal mobility for electron and hole and complete ioniz
out:
nsider a sample of silicon at T=300K doped with an impurity
entration Nd=1015 cm-3 and Nd=1015 cm-3 . Electron and hole
lity is given as 1350 cm2/V-s and 480 cm2/V-s. Calculate the
current density if applied voltage is 35V/cm.
Diffusi
on
Fnet F F
dp
If concentration gradient is dx
p1 p2 v
dp
p1 p2 lc
dx
p1 p2 dp
v lc vth
Fnetp1 p2 lc
2 dx
p
J diff
qFnet q
p
J diff
qD p
2
lc vth
dp
dx
dp
dx
dp
dx
lc vth
n
diff
dn
nDn
dx
Work out:
15 ( x / L )
n
(
x
)
10
e
2. The electron concentration in silicon is given by
Where Ln=10-4 cm. The electron diffusion coefficient is
Dn=25 cm2/s.
Determine the electron diffusion current density at (a)
x=0,
(b) x= 10-4 cm and (c) x .
n
Einsteins Relation
q c
p
*
2m p
Dp
lc vth
Dp
2
lc vth m*p
q c
Dp
m*p vth2
q
Dn kT
p n
q
kT
F q E v B 0
qE y qv x Bz
The Hall field produces Hall voltage
VH E H W
VH v xWBz
I x Bz
VH
epd
Jx
Ix
vx
ep (ep)(Wd )
I x Bz
p
eVH d
I x Bz
VH
end
I x Bz
n
eVH d
J x ep p E x
ep pVx
Ix
Wd
L
IxL
p
epVxWd
Work out:
Consider a Si sample doped with 106 boron atoms
per cm3 with the following geometry,
L = 0.1 cm, W = 10-2cm, d = 10-3cm.
The current Ix= 1 mA, Bz= 350 gauss, Vx=2.2V .
Determine Hall voltage, Hall field and mobility
P-N JUNCTION
When N-type and P-type dopants are introduced sideby-side in a semiconductor, a PN junction or a diode is
formed.
PN junction in
equilibrium
Built-in Potential
During no biasing of p n junction, a potential is developed across the
metallurgical junction due to the presence of the space charge near the
junction. This potential is called built in potential Barrier. It is denoted by
Vbi.
eVbi = Conduction band energy
difference between p and n region
= Intrinsic Fermi energy
difference between p and n
E Fi P E Fi n
region
=
eVbi = e FP e Fn
Vbi =
FP
n 0 Nc e
Fn
e Fn = E Fn - E Fi
e FP = E Fi - E Fp
E c E Fn
kT
n0 ni e
E Fn E Fi
kT
e Fn
n0 ni e
kT
e Fn
n 0
ln
kT
n i
Fn
N
kT
ln d
e
ni
E Fi E Fp
p0 N a = n i e
Na
= e
ni
Fp
kT
Vbi
Fn
Fp
eFp
kT
kT
=
e
N
ln a
ni
kT
Nd
N a
ln
ln
ni
ni
e
Vbi
Vbi
Vbi
N a N d
Vt ln
2
ni
kT N a N d
ln
e ni2
Vt
kT
e
=
=
=
= - e Na
= e Nd
Permitivity
of semiconductor
1
dE x = x dx
s
Assumptions:
1. Electric field is zero in the neutral
p region for x < - xp and neutral n- region x
= + xn
( x)
eN
eN
a dx a x C1
s
s
s
At
x = -xp
E =0
eN a
eN
x p C1 C1 a x p
s
s
eN
E a ( x x p ) For xp x 0
s
eN
eN
( x)
d dx d x C2
s
s
s
At
x = xn E =0
eN d
eN d
0
xn C 2
C2
xn
s
s
eN
E d ( xn x )
For 0 x xn
s
p = -
d
dx
d = - Edx
n = - E n dx
dx
eN d
x n -x dx
n =
eN a
x + x p dx
s
p = -
eN a x 2
p =
+
x
.x
p
s
2
At
eN d
x2
n =
x n .x
s
2
C1
=0
x = -xp
eN a x p
0=
+ x p . -x p
s
2
eN a
2 s
C1
eN a x 2
p =
+
x
.x
p
s
2
p =
eN a
2 s
eN a x p
2
s
x+x
p
x+x
p
eN d
x2
x n .x
s
2
+ C2
eN a 2
x p = C2
2 s
eN a x p
C1 =
s 2
+ C2
eN d
x2
n =
x n .x
s
2
eN a 2
xp
2 s
eN d
x2
n =
x n .x
s
2
eN a 2
+
xp
2 s
( x xn ) Vbi
e
( N d xn2 N a x 2p )
2 s
eN a
(x xp )
s
eN d
( xn x )
s
N a x p N d xn
( x xn ) Vbi
xp
N d xn
Na
e
( N d xn2 N a x 2p )
2 s
N d xn
e
2
N d xn N a
Vbi
2 s
Na
N d2 2
Nd
xn
Na
e Nd
N a N d xn2
Vbi
2 s N a
e
Vbi
2 s
2 sVbi
xn
e
1/ 2
N
d
a
Na
N
d
2 sVbi
xp
e
Nd
N
a
N
d
a
1/ 2
2 sVbi
W
e
2 sVbi
Nd
N
a
1/ 2
N
d
a
1/ 2
N
1
d
Na Nd Na
1/ 2
2 sVbi
Na
Nd
Na
N
d
1/ 2
N
d
a
1/ 2
4 (2mn* )3 / 2
gc (E)
h3
E Ec
gv (E)
4 (2m*p ) 3 / 2
h
Ev E
f (E)
1
1 e
E E F Boltzmann Approximatio
kT
( E EF )
f ( E ) exp
kT
Effective mass
2
h
m 2
4
kT
N v 2
(2mp kT ) 3 / 2
h3
kT
(2mnkT ) 3 / 2
N c 2
h3
Eg
ni N c N v exp
kT
m*p
1
Ec Ec 3 kT ln *
2
4
mn
( E F E Fi )
n0 ni exp
kT
( E Fi EF )
p0 ni exp
kT
n and p product
n0 p0 n
2
i
n0 ( N a pa ) p0 ( N d nd )
Electron concentration from charge neutrality
2
(Nd Na )
Nd Na
2
n0
i
2
2
(Na Nd )
Na Nd
2
p0
i
2
2
n0
E F EFi kTln
ni
E F Ev kTln
Na
If Na>>ni and Nd= 0, p0=Na
p0
E Fi EF kTln
ni
Drift current
JJ
p
drift
n
drift
qp p E qn n E q ( p p n n ) E
Diffusion current
n
diff
dn
nDn
dx
Einstein relation
Dp
Dn kT
p n
q
p
diff
dp
qD p
dx
Hall voltage
I x Bz
VH
epd
I x Bz
VH
end
I x Bz
p
eVH d
I x Bz
n
eVH d
IxL
p
epVxWd
IxL
p
enVxWd
Built in potential
Vbi
N a N d
Vt ln
2
n
eN d
E
( xn x )
s
x + xp
eN d
x2
n =
x n .x
s
2
eN a 2
+
xp
2 s
Na
N
d
Na Nd
1/ 2
Nd
N
a
N
d
a
1/ 2
2 sVbi
W
e
Na Nd
N
d
Na
1/ 2
1/ 2
Na
Nd
1/ 2
)
conductivityi isn considered
function of the hole
p
Where as
min
i is the intrinsic conductivity.
concentration
that the minimum value of
( n p0,p show
)
conductivity, , can be written as
Gn 0 G p 0
Rn 0 R p 0
g n' g 'p
Rn' R p'
n n0 n, p p0 p
n(t ) '
n(t )
'
R R
; Rn R p
n0
p0
'
n
'
p
Continuity equation
Fp
Fp
Fp ( x) Fp ( x dx) Fp ( x) Fp ( x)
.dx ...
.dx
x
x
Fp
p
p
gp
t
x
pt
Fn
n
n
gn
t
x
nt
( pE )
p
E
E
p
x
x
x
p
E
2 p
p
p
p E
p
Dp 2 g p
t
x
x
pt
x
n
E
2n
n
n
n E n
Dn 2 g n
t
x
x
nt
x
n n0 n, p p0 p
n (n) p (p)
t
t t
t
(p )
2 (p )
E
p
(p )
Dp
p E
p
gp
2
t
x
x
x
pt
(n)
2 (n)
E
n
(n)
Dn
n E
n
gn
2
t
x
x
x
nt
Ambipolar Transport
When excess carriers are generated, under external applied field
the excess holes and electrons will try to drift in opposite direction.
However, since electron and holes are charged particles any
separation will induce an internal field between two sets of
particles,
Creating a force that attract electrons and holes back toward each
other.
Only a relatively small internal electric field is sufficient to keep the
Excess electrons and holes drift and diffuse together
The excess electrons and holes do not move independently of each
other, but they drift and diffuse together with same effective
mobility and effective diffusion coefficient. This phenomena is
called ambipolar transport.
Eint Eapp
q p n Eint
.Eint
0
s
x
For ambipolar transport the excess electrons and excess
holes generate and recombine together
gn g p g
n n0 n, p p0 p
Rn' R p' R
n p
(p )
2 (p )
E
p
(p )
Dp
p E
p
gp
2
t
x
x
x
pt
(n)
2 (n)
E
n
(n)
Dn
n E
n
gn
2
t
x
x
x
nt
(p )
2 (p )
E
(p )
Dp
p E
p
gR
2
t
x
x
x
(n)
2 (n)
E
(n)
Dn
n E
n
gR
2
t
x
x
x
2 (n)
(n)
n nD p p pDn 2 p n ( p n) E
x
x
(n)
n n p p g R n n p p
t
nn
p p
(n)
(n)
(n)
'
'
D
E
g R
2
x
x
t
'
( p n) p n
nn p p
n nD p p pDn
D
n n p p
'
Dp
Dn kT
p n
q
Ambipolar mobility
Einstein relation
D
'
Ambipolar transport
equation
Dn D p (n p)
Dn n D p p
(p )
(p )
(p )
'
'
D
E
g R
2
x
x
t
'
( p n) p n
D
'
nn p p
Dn D p (n p )
Dn n D p p
For n-type,
n0 >> p0 and n= p << n0
D
'
'
Dn D p [(n0 n) ( p0 p )]
Dn (n0 n) D p ( p0 p )
( p n) p n
nn p p
n p n
nn
Dn D p n 0
Dn n0
Dp
g R g p R p (G p 0 g 'p ) ( R p 0 R p' )
Thermal equilibr recomb rate
Gp0=Rp0
p
gR g R g
p
'
p
'
p
'
p
(p )
(p )
(p )
'
'
D
E
g R
2
x
x
t
' p
D' Dp
p
gR g R g
p
'
p
'
p
'
p
2 (p)
(p) ' p (p )
Dp
p E
g
2
x
x
p
t
For p-type
2
(n)
(n)
(n)
'
'
D
E
g R
2
x
x
t
' n
D ' Dn
n
gR g R g
n
'
n
'
n
'
n
2 (n)
(n) ' n (n)
Dn
n E
g
2
x
x
n
t
Assumptions:
for derivation of ideal current voltage relationship
1. Space charge regions have abrupt boundary
2. Maxwell-Boltzman approximation applies to carrier statistics
3. The conception of low injection applies
4. The current is constant through out the pn junction
Boundary condition:
Built-in potential
kT N a N d
Vbi
ln
e ni2
ni2
eVbi
exp
Na Nd
kT
If we assume complete ionization
nn 0 N d
np0
ni2
Na
eVbi
n p 0 nn 0 exp
kT
e(Vbi Va )
n p nn 0 exp
kT
eVbi
eVa )
nn 0 exp
exp
kT
kT
eVa
n p n p 0 exp
kT
The total minority carrier concentration in the p-region is
greater than thermal equilibrium value
eVa
pn pn 0 exp
kT
2 (pn )
(pn ) ' pn (pn )
Dp
p E
g
2
x
x
p
t
pn pn pn 0
In the region x > xn the electric field E = 0 and g = 0. If we
also assume steady state (pn ) / t 0
2 (pn ) pn
Dp
0
2
x
p
2 (pn ) pn
0
2
x
D p p
2 (pn ) pn
2 0
2
x
Lp
L p D p p
Diffusion length
2 (n p ) n p
2 0
2
x
Ln
Ln Dn n
pn ( x) pn ( x) pn 0 Ae
x Lp
Be
x Lp
n p ( x) n p ( x) n p 0 Ce x Ln De x Ln
Boundary condition for total minority carrier concentrations
eVa
pn ( xn ) pn 0 exp
kT
eVa
n p ( x p ) n p 0 exp
kT
p n ( xn ) p n 0
n p ( x p ) n p 0
xn x
eVa
pn ( x) pn ( x) pn 0 pn 0 exp
1 exp
kT
Lp
n p ( x) n p ( x) n p 0
x xp
eVa
n p 0 exp
1 exp
kT
Ln
dpn ( x)
J p ( xn ) eD p
dx
x xn
d (pn ( x))
J p ( xn ) eD p
dx
x xn
eD p pn 0
eVa
J p ( xn )
exp
L p
kT
J n ( x p ) eDn
d (n p ( x))
dx
x x p
eDn n p 0
eVa
J n ( x p )
exp
1
Ln
kT
eDn n p 0
J J p ( xn ) J n ( x p )
eD p pn 0
eVa
exp
L p
kT
Ln
eVa
J J s exp
1
kT
Js
eDn n p 0
Ln
eD p pn 0
Lp
Junction Breakdown
For small reverse bias voltage, the reverse bias current remain small
At some particular voltage the current rises suddenly.
The applied voltage at this point is called breakdown voltage.
There are two physical mechanisms give rise to the reverse-bias
breakdown
(1)Avalanche breakdown
(2) Zener breakdown
Avalanche breakdown process occurs when electron and holes,
moving across space charge region, get sufficient energy from
electric field and collide with atomic electrons to produce
electron-hole pair
Zener breakdown occurs in highly doped pn junction through
tunneling mechanism
Avalanche process
The newly created electron and hole pair in the collision process
moves in opposite direction due to electric field and thereby add to
reverse bias current. Further these electrons and holes acquire
sufficient energy to ionize other atoms, leading to avalanche
process.
Avalanche breakdown is the predominant breakdown mechanism.
for most of diodes.
The reverse bias electron current enters the depletion region at x=0 is In0
The current increases with distance through depletion region due to
avalanche process
At x=W, the electron current may be written as
I n (W ) M n I n 0
Mn is the magnification factor
Incremental electron current
dI n ( x) I n ( x) n dx I p ( x) p dx
dI n ( x)
I n ( x) n I p ( x) p
dx
I I n ( x) I p ( x)
I p ( x) I I n ( x)
dI n ( x)
I n ( x) n ( I I n ( x)) p
dx
dI n ( x)
( p n ) I n ( x) p I
dx
Let us assume that electron and hole ionization rate are equal
p n
dI n ( x)
I
dx
I n (W ) I n (0) I dx
0
M n I n 0 I n ( 0)
dx
I
0
Also
M n I n 0 I and I n (0) I n 0
W
1
1
dx
Mn 0
Mn approaches infinity at the avalanche breakdown voltage,
thus avalanche condition is give as
W
dx 1
0
Emax
eN d
xn
s
2 s (Vbi VR )
xn
eN
d
1/ 2
2 sVR
xn
eN
d
1/ 2
eN d
EB
xn
s
E B s
xn
eN d
2 sVB
xn
eN
d
1/ 2
2 sVB E B s
eN d
eN d
s E B2
VB
2eN d
Prob:1
A symmetrically doped pn junction has doping conc. N a=Nd=51016 cm3
.
If the peak electric field in the junction at breakdown is E=410 5 V/cm,
determine the breakdown voltage of this junction.
Zener breakdown
When pn junction is heavily doped , the
barrier separating the valence band of p-side
and conduction band of n-side is very narrow.
This leads to tunneling of electrons from
valence band to conduction band.
The tunneling probability depends on the
width of the barrier and requires a sharp
metallurgical junction with high doping.
Modes of Operation
1. Forward active mode (BaseEmitter junction forward biased
and collector base is reverse
biased)
2. Inverse active mode (BaseEmitter junction forward biased
and collector base is reverse
biased)
3. Saturation mode (Both BE and
BC junction is forward biased
4. Cutoff (Both BE and BC junction
is reverse biased)
We will discuss in detail the transistor operation in forward
active mode for npn transistor
2 (nB ( x)) nB ( x)
DB
0
2
x
B0
nB ( x) nB ( x) nB 0
The general solution of the above equation
x
x
B exp
nB ( x) A exp
LB
LB
Diffusion length
LB DB B 0
nB ( x 0) nB ( x 0) nB 0
eVBE
nB 0 exp
kT
1 A B
nB ( x xB ) nB ( x xB ) nB 0 nB 0
xB
xB
B exp
A exp
LB
LB
xB
eVBE
nB 0 nB 0 exp
1 exp
LB
kT
A
xB
2 sinh
LB
xB
nB 0
1 exp
LB
xB
2 sinh
LB
eVBE
nB 0 exp
kT
nB 0
nB ( x)
eVBE
exp
kT
xB x
x
sinh
1 sinh
LB
LB
xB
sinh
LB
sinh( y ) y
for y 1
nB 0
nB ( x)
nB 0
nB ( x)
xB
eVBE
exp
kT
xB x x
1
LB LB
xB
LB
eVBE
exp
kT
1 xB x x
xE x'
eVBE
pE 0 exp
1 sinh
LE
kT
pE ( x' )
xE
sinh
LE
pE 0
pE ( x' )
xE
eVBE
exp
kT
1 xE x'
x' '
IC
0
IE
If active cross sectional area is same for collector and emitter
J C J nC J G J pc 0
0
JE
J nE J R J pE
The small signal common base current gain is defined as
J C
J nC
J E J nE J R J pE
The reverse bias BC current, JG and Jpc0 are not a function
of emitter current
J C
J nE
J E J nE J pE
T
J nE
J nE J pE
J nC
T
J nE
J nC
J
nE
J nE J pE
J nE J R J pE
J nE J pE
J J J
R
pE
nE
Recombination factor
J nE
J nE J pE
1
J pE
J nE
J pE
d (pE ( x' ))
eDE
dx'
x ' 0
J nE
d (nB ( x))
eDB
dx
x 0
J pE
J nE
eDE
LE
eDB nB 0
LB
eVBE
exp kT
1
1 .
tanh xE / LE
exp(eVBE / kT ) 1
tanh xB / LB
sinh( xB / LB )
exp(eVBE / kT ) 1
exp(eVBE / kT )
1
tanh xB / LB
sinh xB / LB
p D L tanh xB / LB
1 E0 E B .
nB 0 DB LE tanh xE / LE
Assuming all parameters in the equation except pE0 and nB0 are fixed,
then in order for 1, we must have pE0<< nB0
If NE and NB are doping concentration in the emitter and base respectively
pE 0
ni2
ni2
and nB 0
NE
NB
N D x
1 B E B
N E DB xE
J nC
eDB nB 0
LB
J nE
eDB nB 0
LB
J nC
d (nB ( x))
eDB
dx
x xB
J nE
d (nB ( x))
eDB
dx
x 0
1
exp(eVBE / kT ) 1
sinh xB / LB
tanh( xB / LB )
1
exp(eVBE / kT ) 1
tanh xB / LB
sinh( xB / LB )
exp(eVBE / kT ) 1
J nC
T
J nE
exp(eVBE / kT ) cosh( xB / LB )
1 exp(eVBE / kT ) cosh( xB / LB )
1
T
cosh( xB / LB )
We may expand the cosh function Taylor series, so that
1
T
cosh( xB / LB )
1
1 xB
1
2 LB
1 xB
1
2 LB
Recombination factor
J nE J pE
J J J
R
pE
nE
J nE
1
J nE J R 1 J R J nE
exBE ni
eVBE
eVBE
JR
exp
J r 0 exp
2 0
kT
kT
J nE
eDB nB 0
eVBE
exp
LB tanh( xB / LB )
kT
Jr0
eVBE
1
exp
J s0
kT
eVBE
J s 0 exp
kT
1
2
J
N B DE xB 1 xB
eVBE
r 0 exp
1
.
.
N E DB xE 2 LB
J s0
kT
Increase VBC (reverse bias), increase the space charge region width
This reduces xB
This is known as Early effect: Early being the first person who identified
this problem
dI C
IC
g0
dVCE
VCE VA
VA and VCE are defined as positive quantities and g0 is defined as the
output conductance. We can rewrite the above equation
I C g 0 VCE VA
Showing explicitly the collector current is now a function of C-E
or C-B voltage
Questions: how would you use doping levels in an npn structure to
influenced Early voltage
Calculate the change in the neutral base width with change in C-B
voltage.
Consider a uniformly doped BJT at T=300K with base doping NB =
51016 cm-3 and collector doping NC = 21015 cm-3. Assume metallurgical
base width is 0.70m. Calculate the change in neutral base width as CB
voltage changes from 2 to 10V.
Calculate change in collector current with change in neutral base width,
and estimate Early voltage
Assume DB = 25 cm2/s, and VBE=0.60V and also assume xB<<LB.
Solution:
xdB
xdB
2 s (Vbi VCB ) N C
1
e
N
N
N
B
B C
1/ 2
19
16
15
16
1.6 10
5 10 2 10 5 10
1/ 2
1/ 2
kT N B N C
Vbi
ln
0.718V
2
e ni
For VCB = 2V
xdB 9.96 10
12
(0.718 2)
1/ 2
0.052 m
xdB 9.96 10
12
(0.718 10)
1/ 2
0.103m
nB 0
nB ( x)
eVBE
exp
kT
xB x
x
sinh
1 sinh
LB
LB
xB
sinh
LB
nB 0
nB ( x)
xB
eVBE
exp
kT
1 xB x x
exp
dx
xB
kT
nB 0
10 2
n
1.5 10
NB
5 1016
2
i
4.5 103
3
.
2
A
/
cm
4
0.648 10
0.0259
dJ C
JC
J C
J C 3.47 3.20
JC
3.20
Va 92V
High Injection
So far we assumed low injection conditions
Breakdown voltage
Two mechanism to be considered
Punch-through
Avalanche Breakdown
Punch-through
As the reverse-bias B-C voltage increases, the depletion region
encroaches further into the base and can eventually occupy all of it
B-E potential barrier is lowered because of C-B voltage
The lowering of potential barrier at B-E junction produces a large
increase in current with small increase in C-B volatge
This will cause a large surge in collector current and loss of
transistor action
xdB
2 s (Vbi V pt ) N C
WB
e
N
B
NC N B
1/ 2
eWB2 N B ( N C N B )
V pt
2 s
NC
The metallurgical base width of a silicon npn transistor is
WB=0.8m. The base and collector doping concentrations are
NB=21016 cm-3 and NB=21016 cm-3. Find the punch-through
breakdown voltage.
Avalanche breakdown
I CEO
I CBO
I CBO
1
1
M
n
1 VCB BVCBO
I CEO
MI CBO
1 M
M=1
1
n
n
1 VCB BVCBO
1 BVCEO BVCBO
Solving this
BVCEO BVCBO n 1
Normally 1, so that
BVCEO BVCBO
1
n
1
1
Metal-Semiconductor junction
Metal semiconductor contact is critically
important element in all semiconductor
device
The contact can have rectifying
characteristics like pn junction. This type of
rectifying contact device is called rectifying
Schottky
The otherdiode
type of contact can be nonrectifying and have small resistance,
usually referred as ohmic contact
m s
q (s ) EC E F kT ln N c N d
q ( s ) E F EV E g kT ln N v N d
Bn (m )
Vbi Bn n
(m ) kT ln N c N d
Charge distribution
eN
eN
( x)
d dx d x C2
s
s
s
At
0
electric-field
distribution
eN d
xn C 2
s
x = xn E =0
C2
eN d
xn
s
eN d
E
( xn x )
s
W
0
Emax
eN d xn
Depletion width
2 s (Vbi VR )
W xn
eN d
1/ 2
Junction capacitance
1
C
dxn eN d s
C eN d
dx 2(Vbi VR )
2
2(Vbi VR )
eN d s
1/ 2
Prob-1
Consider an ideal chromium to n-type silicon Schottky diode at T=300K.
The semiconductor is doped at a concentration of Nd=31015 cm-3 and
the work function of chromium is 4.5 eV. Determine (a) Shottky barrier
height (b) built in potential (c) peak electric field with an reverse
applied reverse bias voltage of VR=5V and (d) junction capacitance per
unit area.
Prob: 2
1/C
vs
V
If straight line constant doping profile
2
q ni