EGYPTIAN ARCHITECTURE

( Circa 3200 BC AD First

Century )
E. G. Clemente

I. GEOGRAPHICAL

Egypt the Land of the of the Pharaohs, of which

the ancient name was Kmi, or the Black land
Consist of narrow strip of fertile, alluvial soil along
both banks of the Nile bordered by sandy desert
It was the only country in the ancient world which,
by means of the Red Sea, commanded outlet and
inlets for foreign trade by both the Mediterranean
and Arabian Seas

The Nile itself was of untold value, not

only as a trade route and means of
communication, but also chiefly because
its overflowing and fertilizing waters
made desert sands into fruitful fields
From time immemorial, the Egyptians
founded their cities, both for living and
the dead and here are the royal
pyramids and priestly temples

II. GEOLOGICAL
The natural products, such as timber,
brick, clay, and stone largely determined
the character of the architecture of a
country
Chief stones includes limestone,
sandstone and alabaster
Hard stones includes granite, quartzite
and basalt

Stones were not only used for constructive

and decorative architectural work, but also for
vases and even for personal ornaments
Porphyry was little used before Roman times
Egyptian quarries for limestone is located at
Tura and Masara in the Mokattam Hills
Sandstone was quarried in central districts
Red granite or syenite was found in Aswan

The country was poor in metals

Copper was gained chiefly at Sinai
peninsula
Tin was at length imported for making
bronze
Iron was extremely rare and of meteoric
origin and not mined

The gigantic scale which distinguishes

Egyptian architecture was made
possible not only by the materials but
also by the method of quarrying,
transporting, and raising enormous
blocks of stone into positions
Sun dried and kiln burnt bricks were
used for houses and royal palaces


o
o
o
o

There was a little timber

Acacia served for boats
Sycamore was used for mummy cases
Cedar and other woods were imported
Indigenous date palm, whose fruit is the
staple food of the people, was sometimes
used for roofing

III. CLIMATIC
Egypt is said to have but two seasons: spring and
summer
The climate is equable and warm
Snow and frost is unknown
Storm, fog and even rain are rare and these conditions
have contributed to the preservation of the buildings
Such climate with brilliant sunshine conduced also to
the simplicity of the design
Sufficient light reached the interiors through doors and
roof slits

There was no need for windows

Unbroken massive walls not only
protected the interior from fierce heat of
the sun but also provided an interrupted
surface for hieroglyphics
Roof drainage was not a consideration
Flat roof of stones slabs sufficed to
cover the buildings and exclude heat

IV. RELIGIOUS
The close connection between religion
and architecture is everywhere
manifested
The religious rites of the Egyptians were
traditional, unchangeable, and
mysterious
These are evident in architecture of both
tombs and temples

The religion was monotheistic in theory

but polytheistic in practice through the
cult of many gods representing natural
phenomena and the heavenly bodies
The religious keynote of the Egyptians
was one of awe and submission to the
great power represented by the sun
Their chief worship was for Osiris, the
man God

Elaborate preparations were made for the care

of their bodies after their death and the wealthy
built themselves lordly tomb houses
The deceased Pharaoh was transported across
the Nile to the West Bank where the Domain of
the Dead is located
There was no dividing line between Gods and
Kings
God themselves were invested with
superhuman and therefore with inventive powers

Their Gods are associated in triads:

Theban Triad
Ammon Sun God
Mut the wife of Ammon, the mother of
all things
Khons son of Ammon and Mut, the
Moon God

Memphis Triad
Ptah the creator
Sekhmet wife of Ptah, goddess of War
Nefertem son of Ptah and Sekhmet

BAST
Goddess of Protection, Pleasure &
Health

HORUS
The Sky God

Other gods includes:

Osiris the god of the dead
Isis the wife of Osiris
Horus the sky God
Hathor the goddess of Love
Set the dread god of Evil
Seraphis the Bull God

HATHOR

SETH

ISIS

OSIRIS
ANUBIS

V. HISTORICAL AND SOCIAL

The Egyptian civilization is among the most
ancient of which we have any clear knowledge
Our information is derived from ancient literary
sources, from records in papyri and tablets
But more particularly from Egyptian buildings
and their inscriptions
It was a custom to record matters of history on
temples, and of domestic and social interest
on tombs and stelae

Social and industrial conditions in Egypt were

largely determined by the inflexible rule of an
omnipotent government
Craftsmanship was very highly developed
Egyptians attained great skills in weaving, glass
blowing, pottery turning, metal working and in
making musical instruments, jewelry and
furniture
The pursuit of learning astronomy, mathematics
and philosophy was continuously carried on
especially by the priest

The kings of Ancient Egypt are known as Pharaohs,

a name given to them by the Hebrews and derived
from the Egyptian Per-aa, the Great House
The pharaohs have been divided into thirty (30)
dynasties by Manetho, an Egyptian priest who, about
300 BC, compiled a history of Egypt in Greek
Egyptian civilization was already well advanced when
the first dynasty was inaugurated by Menes
Egyptologist date the Ancient Kingdom back to 3500
BC or even 5000 BC

1. Ancient Kingdom ( Dynasties I X ), 3200

2130 BC

- nowadays commonly subdivided as

follows: the Archaic Kingdom ( Dynasties I-II
), the Old Kingdom ( Dynasties III-VI ), the
First Intermediate Period ( Dynasties VII-X )
Menes the first dynastic king is reputed to
have founded Memphis at the southern
extremities of Lower Egypt

Memphis was the capital of the throughout the

great pyramid building age extending from the
Third to Sixth Dynasty
Thebes emerged as the chief city in the
Eleventh dynasty
During the First and Second Dynasties,
civilization progressed and the art of writing and
the hieroglyphic system already were developed
The tombs for the kings and nobles were of the
mastaba type and were built of sun dried bricks

In the Third Dynasty the royal mastaba

evolves towards the true pyramid as is
shown by the Step Pyramid of the Pharaoh
Zoser at Sakkara
It was in the Fourth Dynasty that the royal
pyramids became fully evolved
Culmination of achievement is represented
by the famous three at Gizeh: Cheops,
Chefren and Mykerinos
Many pyramids followed chiefly at Abusir and
Sakkara in the Fifth Dynasty
Sakkara was again the favoured location for
the pyramids in Sixth Dynasty

2. Middle Kingdom ( Dynasties XI-XVII ),

2130 1580 BC
- often divided into the Middle Kingdom ( Dynasties
XI-XII ) and the Second Intermediate Period
The Eleventh Dynasty saw a progressive recovery
of political stability and mastery of the arts
Mentuhetep II unified the country once again
Mentuhetep II built an elaborate, terrace d mortuary
temple at Der el- Bahari
Pyramids usually were of crude bricks faced with
stones

The energetic and enterprising Amenemhat I of

the Twelfth Dynasty restored earlier temples and
founded the Great Temple at Karnak
Senusrets I erected at Heliopolis the earliest
known instance of a large obelisk
Amenemhat III probably built the Labyrinth at
Fayum
The Eleventh and Twelfth Dynasties belongs a
series of open fronted tombs at Beni Hasan
Followed by five Dynasties of such confusion that
even succession of kings is uncertain

3. New Kingdom ( Dynasties XVIII-XXX , 1580332 BC

Amasis I completed the expulsion of the Hyksos

from the delta and pursued them into Palestine
Thebes was the capital and many buildings were
erected
Thothmes I began those additions to the Temple of
Ammon at Karnak
Thothmes I was the first Pharaoh to be buried in
the rock cut corridor Tombs of the Kings in
Theban mountain

THOTMES I

THOTMES II

Queen Hatshepsut patronized the arts of peace, re

established religious rites, and built below the
mountain side her fascinating terraced funerary
temple at Der el Bahari
Thothmes III one of the greatest Pharaoh rebuilt
and decorated many temples
Amenophis III built the greater part of the temple
at Luxor, dignified that at Karnak by pylons and
sphinxes
Amenophis III erected the renowned Colossi of
Memnon
Amenophis IV, who in the fourth year of his reign
changed his name to Akhnaten deserted Thebes
and founded his capital at Tell el Amana

QUEEN HATSEPSUT

THOTMES II

AMENOPHIS III

AMENOPHIS IV

Seti I continued his fathers work at Karnak, built

his Temple at Abidos and his own sepulcher
among the Tombs of the Kings
Rameses II called by early Egyptologist the
Great surpused the achievements of his
predecessors
Ramases II finished and erected many temples,
such as the Rock Temples at Abu Simbel, the
Hypostyle Hall at Karnak and the Ramesseum at
Thebes
Craftsmanship had begun to deteriorate during the
reign of Ramases and following reigns
All the Kings in the Twentieth Dynasty were named
Rameses

SETI I

RAMESES II

4. The Ptolemaic Period ( 332 30 BC )

Alexander the Great rescued the Egyptians from

their hated oppressors
He was hailed by the priest as the son of Ammon
He founded Alexandria as the capital and it
became the center of Greek culture
On his death in 323 BC, Egypt fell to his general
Ptolemy
Greek customs and methods crept in

The Ptolemies upheld the gods, built temples

of the native type at Dendera, Esna, Edfu
and Philae
The reign of Ptolemy II is famous for the
Pharos or Light House
Ptolemy V is responsible for the production
of the Rosetta Stone
Struggles with Rome were continuous
On the death of Cleopatra, Egypt became a
Roman province

5. The Roman Period ( 30 BC 395 AD )

Egypt under Caesar entered another

phase of prosperity
This period includes the construction of
the famous Pharaohs Bed
Under Constantine, Roman control in
Egypt extended even to religion

In AD 324 Christianity was declared to

be recognized as its official religion and
the Bible was translated into Coptic
When Theodosius the Great issued his
edict in AD 381, decreeing that the
whole of the Roman empire should be
Christian
6. Later Periods ( AD 395 to present day )

ARCHITECTURAL CHARACTER

The general architectural character are

as follows : simplicity, massiveness,
monumental, mysterious
The primitive architecture in the valley of
the Nile appears to have consisted of
puddle clay and reeds, or of sun baked
bricks, and some of its original character
is seen in the later monumental style of
stone and granite

Egyptian monumental architecture which is

essentially columnar and trabeated style
was mainly employed on pyramids, tombs,
and temples
Egyptian temples, approached by
impressive avenues of sphinxes mythical
monsters each with the body of a lion and
the head of a man, hawk, ram or a woman
Plan of the Egyptian temples differ in many
respect to the Greek

The main entrance of the temple is flanked

by slender obelisk which formed a strong
contrast to the massive pylons
Courts and halls alike were designed to
produce an impressive internal effect
The hypostyle hall, seemingly unlimited in
size is crowded with columns and
mysteriously illuminated from above was
the grandest achievement of Egyptian
planning

Temples frequently consist of a series of

additions spread over many centuries
Temple walls are immensely thick, of limestone,
sandstone or more rarely of granite
The wall faces slope inwards or batter externally
towards the top, giving massive appearance
Columns are not used externally in Egyptian
buildings which normally have a massive blank
wall crowned with characteristic gorge cornice
of roll and hollow moulding

Walls even when of granite were generally

carved in low relief and sometimes coated
with thin skin of stucco
Colonnades and doorways were essentially
trabeated, were usually square headed and
spanned with massive lintels
Windows are seldom found
Roofs were composed of massive slabs of
stones supported by outer walls and closely
spaced columns

Flat roofs of dwelling houses served as

pleasant rendezvous for enjoyment of fresh
breezes which sprang up at sunset
Columns seldom over six diameters high
often appear in the form of papyrus or lotus
tied at intervals by bands
The circular shaft curve in towards the base
like sheathed stalks and sometimes stand
on thick unmoulded bases which in shape
somewhat resemble a Dutch cheese

Mouldings were few and consisted of

the bead or roll moulding for the angles
of the building
Mouldings were evidently considered to
be out of place where walls were
relieved by sculptured pictures from
base to summit

EXAMPLES

TOMB ARCHITECTURE

The tombs were of three main types:

a) Mastabas
b) Royal Pyramids
c) Rock Hewn Tombs

a) Mastaba An ancient Egyptian,

rectangular, flat topped, funerary mound,
with battered ( sloping ) sides, covering
a burial chamber below
It is derived from the Arabic word which
means bench
They were probably derived from the
rude heaps of stones piled over earlier
mummy holes

They consist of three parts namely:

a. The outer chamber in which were placed
the offerings to the Ka or double decorated
with festals
b. The inner secret chamber known as
serdab which contains the statues of the
deceased members of the family
c. The chamber containing the sarcophagus,
reached by underground shaft

1. Mastaba of Thi, Sakkara

Well preserved and restored

Was erected to Thi, who held the position of royal
architect and superintendent of royal pyramids
Consist of small vestibule, beyond which is a large court
where offering to the deceased were made
The masonry is accurately joined and the bas relief s
are some of the finest and most interesting in Egypt
A second chamber has mural relief which represent
harvesting, ship building, slaughtering of sacrificial
animals as well arts and crafts of Old Egypt

2. Mastaba of Aha, Sakkara

It dates from the First dynasty

It is closely identified with Menes, the unifier
and founder of Memphis
It takes the form of a shallow pit, subdivided
by crude brick walls into five chambers
The central chamber is designed to contain
the body of the king and he other four
chambers for his intimate possessions

Brick superstructure covered a broader

area and had twenty seven
compartments containing other grave
goods, including jars for food, ceiled with
timber and covered with brick or debris
The exterior had palace-faade
decoration of serrated vertical
projections and recesses, the first of the
series of such tombs at Sakkara

3. Mastaba Ki at Beit, Khallaf

A massive stairway tomb of crude brick,
typical of the Third Dynasty
The stair and the ramp is guarded by five
stone portcullises, lead to a rock cut, stone
lined tomb chamber surrounded by a knot of
magazines of funerary offerings
Above ground, the mastaba is plain and
virtually solid

4. Mastaba at Gizeh

Mostly of the Fourth and Fifth Dynasties

Number from two to three hundred
Arranged in orderly ranks and adjoins
the famous pyramids there
Fourth Dynasty examples illustrate the
development of offering chapel

b) Pyramid - a sepulchral monument in

the form of huge stone structure with a
square base and sloping sides
meeting at an apex

The word pyramid is derived from the

Greek word pyramis or wheatened
cake
Ancient Egyptians called them mr

Did not stand in solitary isolation but were

the primary part of a complex of buildings
which includes the ff:
1. An offering chapel, with stele, usually
abutting the east side of the pyramid but
occasionally on the north
2. Mortuary temple for the worship of the dead
3. A raised and enclosed causeway
4. Valley building in which embalmment and
internment rites was performed

Are founded on the living rock, leveled to

receive them, and were of limestone
quarried in their locality
Faced with finer limestone coming from
Tura
Granite , in limited use for linings of the
chambers and passageways was quarried
in Aswan
Entrances normally were from the north side

Sides were scrupulously oriented with

the cardinal points
Were built in a series of concentric
sloping slices or layers , around a steep
pyramidal core so that the whole mass
first appeared in step-like tiers

Three types of pyramids

a) Stepped Example : Pyramid of

Zoser ( Architect: Imhotep )
b) Bent Example: South Pyramid of
Seneferu
c) Sloped Example : Pyramid at Gizeh
( Architect: Isostress )

1. Stepped Pyramid of Zoser, Sakkara

Is remarkable as being the the worlds first

large scale monument in stone
Built by Zosers architect Imhotep
The pyramid shows no less than five changes
of plan in the course of building
It began as a complete mastaba, 7.90 m high,
unusual in having a square plan, of 63.00 m
sides

2. Pyramid at Meydum
Attributed to Huni, last king of the Third
Dynasty
Though eventually completed as a true
pyramid, it was definitely known that at
one stage it was a seven stepped
structure
Faced with Tura limestone

3. Bent or South Pyramid of Seneferu,

Dashur
Peculiar for having two angles of
inclination
Lower half of the pyramid has 5415
inclination
Upper half has 43 inclination where it
shows hasty completion

It has two entirely independent tomb

chambers, one is reached from the north,
the other from the west
The change in slope had the object of
lightening the weight of the upper masonry
as the walls of chambers and passages
began to show fissures
The plan is square, 187.00 m and the height
about 102.00 m
It is faced with Tura limestone

4. North Pyramid of Seneferu, Dashur

Made after the abandonment of the Bent Pyramid

Was the actual burial place of Seneferu
Adjoins nearby tombs of Royal family
It is the earliest designed and completed true
pyramid
The pitch of the sides is unusually low, 4336
which is very similar to the upper part of the Bent
Pyramid

5. Great Pyramid of Cheops ( Khufu ),

Near Cairo
Designed for Cheops, son of Seneferu
and the second king of the Fourth
Dynasty
The largest pyramid of the famous three
in Gizeh
Originally 146.40 m high and 230.60 m
square on plan

Covers an area about 13.00 acres or

more than twice that of S. Peter, Rome
The four sides face the cardinal points,
are equilateral triangles and make an
angle of 5152 with the ground

There are three separate internal

chambers, due to changes of plan in
course of building
The subterranean chamber
Queens Chamber which is discarded
and abandoned in favor of the Kings
chamber
Kings Chamber where the sarchopagus
is located

The entrance is 7.30 m off center on the

north side and 17.00 m above ground
level
Built solidly of local stone, the pyramid
originally was cased in finely dressed
Tura limestone stone blocks and the
apex stone perhaps guilded
The average weight of blocks is 2500 kg
(2 1/2 tons , bedded in thin lime mortar

6. Pyramid of Chephren ( Kafra )

Is the second of the three at Gizeh

Slightly smaller than Pyramid of Cheops
The sides are 216.00 m and 143.00 m high
Slope is 5220 and has only one chamber at
the core
Near its apex, the original limestone casing is
preserved
Base courses of the facing were of granite

7. Pyramid of Mykerinos ( Menkaura )

Is much smaller than its two
predecessor at Gizeh
109.00 m square and 66.50 m high with
sloping sides at 51
Much of its casing is preserved and is
mainly of Tura limestone but includes
sixteen base courses in granite

c. Rock Hewn Tombs

Rare before Middle Kingdom

Designed to serve the nobility rather
than the royalty

1. Tombs, Beni Hasan

From the Eleventh and Twelfth dynasties
numbering to thirty nine
Belong to a provincial great family
Are wholly rock hewn tombs and consist of
chamber behind a porticoed faade plainly
imitating wooden construction in character

2. Tomb of the Kings, Thebes

Located on the arid mountains on the west side of the
Nile
They witness a complete abandonment of the royal
pyramid tomb during the New Kingdom
The sarcophagus usually lay in a concluding rock
columned hall
Walls were elaborately painted with ceremonial
funerary scenes and religious texts
Important tombs of this kind includes the tombs of Seti
I, and Ramases III, IX and IX

Valley of the Kings

The west bank

necropolis can be
divided into a
number of zones
and sub-zones, of
which the Valley
of the Kings is
only one zone.
The northern
sector of the west
bank closest to
the Nile River is
often referred to
as the
Tombs of the Nob
les
,

TEMPLES

o
o

Temples were of two main classes

1. Mortuary Temples
For ministration to deified pharaohs
Developed from the offering chapels of the
royal mastabas and pyramids
2. Cult Temples
For the popular worship of the ancient and
mysterious gods

EXAMPLES OF TEMPLES

1. Temple of Khons, Karnak

A cult temple
May be taken as the usual type
Characterized by entrance pylon, court, hypostyle
hall, sanctuary and various chapels all enclosed
by a high girdle wall
The entrance pylon is fronted by obelisks and
approached through imposing avenue of sphinxes

2. Temple of Hatshepsut, Der el-Bahari, Thebes

Built by her architect Senmut, alongside that of

Mentuhetep
It is terraced similarly but her place of burial lay far
away in a corridor tomb in the mountain beyond
Solely a mortuary temple dedicated to Ammon and
other gods
Wall relief in this temple are exceptionally fine and
includes representations of queens trade
expedition at Punt and her allegedly divine birth

3. Great Temple of Ammon, Karnak

The grandest of all Egyptian temples

Was not built upon one complete plan
Owes its size, disposition and
magnificence to the work of many kings

Originally consisted of a modest shrine

constructed early in the Middle Kingdom about
2000 BC
The first considerable enlargement was made by
Thotmes I
Occupies the site of 366.00m x 110.00 m and is
placed in an immense enclosure along with other
temples and sacred lake
Surrounded by girdle wall 6.10 m to 9.00 m thick
Connected by an avenue of sphinxes with temple
at Luxor

Had six pairs of pylons added by successive rulers

A great court 103.00m x 84.00 m gives entrance to
the vast hypostyle hall
The roof of enormous slab is supported by 134
columns in sixteen rows
The central avenues are about 24.00 m in height
and have columns , 21.00 m high and 3.60 min
diameter with capital of papyrus flower or bell type
Side avenues are lower with columns 13.00 m high
and 2.7 m in diameter with papyrus bud capital

4. Rameseum, Thebes

By Rameses II
A typical mortuary temple of the Middle
Kingdom as that of Khons in Karnak
The front pylons were 67.00 m wide and
led to two columned courts

5. Great Temple, Abu Simbel

Is one of the two rock hewn temples commanded
by the indefatigable Rameses II
Is the most stupendous of all rock hewn temples
An entrance forecourt leads to imposing faade,
36.00 m wide and 32.00 m high forming as pylons
In front of the faade are four rock cut seated
colossal statues of Rameses over 20.00 m high
The hall is 9.00 m high has eight Osiris pillars and
vividly coloured wall reliefs

6. Small Temple, Abu Simbel

By Rameses II
Located close to The Great Temple of Abu Simbel
Dedicated to his deified Queen Nefertari and the
Goddess Hathor
The faade is 27.40 m wide and 12.20 m high
Comprises six niches recessed in the face of the
rock and containing six colossal statues, 10.00 m
high representing Rameses and Nefertari

7. Temple of Isis, on the Island of Philae

Marks an ancient site
Minor parts of the surviving buildings
belong to the Thirteenth Dynasties but
most are by the Ptolemies II-XIII
The irregularities of the plan are due to
piecemeal building

Column capitals are courser and more

ornate, varied in design from column to
column and have a very deep abacus
blocks
The whole island nowadays is
submerged during a part of the year
leaving only the tops of trhe building
visible

8. Temple of Horus, Edfu

A fine well preserved example of the

Ptolemaic period
It was built in three stages with
protracted intervals between;
It is plainly processional cult temple

There is a passage surrounding the

sanctuary which serves also to give
access to thirteen small chapels
All the inner rooms were completely
dark and windowless
The grand pylons are some 62.60 m
across and 30.50 m high

9. Mammisi Temple, Edfu

Stands in the outer enclosure of the

Temple of Horus
A typical of all externally colonnaded
birth houses, and similar to others at
Elephantine, Philae and Dendera

10. Temple of Hathor, Dendera

The most imposing temple of this type

Stands in a brick walled temenos 290.00
m by 280.00 m wide
Except in lacking pylons, it closely
resembles that at Edfu

The hypostyle hall was added to the

Ptolemaic nucleus in the Roman times
The four sided Hathor headed capitals
of the hypostyle hall, carrying a
conventional representation of the birth
house on the deep abaci are typical of
the period

Obelisk
Originated in the sacred symbol of the
sun God of Heliopolis
Usually stood in pairs astride temple
entrances
Are huge monoliths, square on plan and
tapering to an electrum capped
pyramidion at the summit which is the
sacred part

Have height of nine to ten times the

diameter at the base
Four sides are cut with hieroglyphics
Many were removed from Egypt by the
Roman Emperors and there are at least
twelve in Rome alone

1. Obelisk in the Piazza of S. Giovanni in

Laterano, Rome

Was brought to Rome from the Temple

of Ammon at Karnak, Thebes
Originally erected by Thotmes III
It is the largest known obelisk

2. Cleopatras Needle

The obelisk at the Thames Embankment,

London
Originally at Heliopolis
Was brought to England from Alexandria
in 1878
It bears the inscription of Thotmes III and
Rameses II

ARCHITECTURAL ELEMENTS
Types of Egyptian
columns/capitals
a. Square Pillar
b. Polygonal Column
c. Palm type Capital
d. Bud Capital
e. Bell Capital
f. Composite Capital
g. Volute Capital
h. Hathor head Capital
i. Osiris Pillars

2. Openings
a. Doors
b. Roof Slit
c. Windows

3. Walls
Usually thick
Decorated with
hieroglyphics at the
interior
Battered at the exterior

4. Mouldings
a. Torus Moulding
b.
GorgeMoulding/Holl
ow and Roll

5. Ornaments
a. Scarab symbol of
resurrection
b. lotus and Papyrus
symbol of fertility
c. Ureaus cobra motif
d. Grape Pattern
symbol of eternity
e. Vulture symbol of
protection
f. Solar Disc

TERMINOLOGIES
1. Pylon- a term applied to the mass of masonry with central
opening forming a monumental entrance to Egyptian
temple
2. Sanctuary the most sacred part of the church or temple
c. Papyrus aquatic plant used by the Egyptians for great
variety of purposes including the construction of the
primitive reed huts