Viruses

Chapter Outline:
A basic overview of viruses

Origins of viruses
Cultivation, purification, and
quantification of viruses
Diversity of viruses
Virus-like particles
Virology today
Copyright 2013 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. All rights reserved.
A basic overview of viruses:

What is a virus?
History of virology
Viral diseases have
plagued humans since
before we even knew
what they were (smallpox
in Egypt).
It began as a science in
late 1800s, when
infectious tobacco mosaic
virus was isolated in a
filtered, bacteria-free fluid
by Ivanovski, then
Beijerinck.

History of virology
Walter Reed showed in 1901 that a
human disease, yellow fever, was
caused by a virus transmitted by
mosquitoes.

Structure of viruses: Viruses are
Intracellular obligate parasites
Typically between 10 and100 nm
Genomes typically between a few
thousand to 200,000 nucleotides in
length
Viruses
Viruses
Viruses

There ARE exceptions to the small size
of viruses.
CroV virus of marine single-celled organisms
has a 730k bp genome!
Megavirus chilensis (a virus of amoebas) has a
genome over 1.2 megabase pairs, encodes
1,200 proteins!
Mimivirus (a dsDNA virus of amoebas) can be
400 nm in diameter, with a 1.2 megabase pair
genome coding for 979 proteins!

Structure of viruses
Single or double-stranded DNA or RNA
Protein shell (capsid) around genome composed of
many capsomere proteins
capsid and genome together = nucleocapsid
Possible envelope (plasma membrane around capsid)

Structure of viruses: Symmetry
Capsids often exhibit either helical or
icosahedral shapes.

Structure of viruses: Symmetry
Viral capsids can sometimes take on
irregular or complex shapes.

Structure of viruses: Viral Envelopes
If a plasma membrane surrounds the
nucleocapsid, the virus is enveloped.
If there is no plasma membrane, the virus
is naked.

Replication cycle
BRIEFLY, a virus must
Stick to a host cell (adhere)
Get into the cell
(penetrate) and release its
genome (uncoat)
Express its genes to make
proteins (synthesis)
Replicate its genome
(synthesis)
Put everything together
(assembly) and get the
new virus particles out
(exit)

Replication cycle: Entry
Entry is arguably the most important
part in the viral replication cycle.
Mechanisms for entry vary depending
on the host cell.
Animal viruses dont have to contend with a
cell wall structure.
Plant, fungal, and bacterial viruses do.
A basic
overview of
viruses:
Replication
cycle: Entry
into animal
cells

Replication cycle: Entry into plant
cells
Often depends on some damage to the
plant tissues to open a spot in the cell
wall
Insects feeding on plants

Wind damage
Hail/rain damage
Fire damage
Human-induced damage

Replication cycle: Entry into bacteria
Origins of viruses:
From what did viruses arise?
The evolutionary history of viruses isnt
very clear, but three hypotheses have
emerged:
Coevolution
Regressive
Progressive
Origins of viruses:
Coevolution hypothesis
Viruses evolved along with their host
cells.
This could explain the origin of many RNA
viruses.
There is little supporting evidence as of yet.
Regressive hypothesis
Viruses are cells that lost some of the
replicative and metabolic traits over
time.
Examples of this phenomenon exist in the
biological world.
ThisCopyright
doesnt
origins of
2013 adequately
John Wiley & Sons, Inc. explain
All rights reserved.
Origins of viruses:
Progressive
hypothesis
Existing genetic
elements
gradually gained
the ability to
move from cell to
cell.
Evidence in the
form of
transposons (for
DNA viruses) and
Copyright 2013 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. Allretrotransposons
rights reserved.

quantification of viruses:
How can we grow and quantify
viruses?
Viruses are much trickier to work with
than bacteria.
They are very small.
They only replicate within appropriate
host cells.
Because of these traits, various
strategies are used to amplify and
quantify viruses.

Viral cultivation: Two types of
bacteriophages
Lytic: Phages will replicate in and
burst open (lyse) the host cells.
Lysogenic: Phages can integrate their
genome into the host cell genome
(becoming a prophage) and be
replicated each time the host cell
replicates.


Viral cultivation: Animal viruses
Tissue culture of host cells must be used to grow the targets
for the viruses.
These cultures must be kept sterile and bacteria-free (see
Toolbox 5.1 in the textbook).
These methods have only been
in place since the 1950s.
Modern virology couldnt exist
without these tools.
Many of these tools developed
from the first human cell line,
known as HeLa cells (named
after the woman they were
originally isolated from,
Henrietta Lacks).
The Immortal Life of Henrietta Lacks

Viral cultivation: Animal viruses
Tissue culture of host cells must be used to
grow the targets for the viruses.
Cytopathic effects (CPE) can be observed in
virally infected cultured cells.
Diversity of viruses:
Virus names:
Historically, quite varied!
Simple letter/number combinations (T4 phage)

Organism(s) they infect (tobacco mosaic virus)
Location of discovery (Ebola River, Zaire)
Appearance (coronavirus, crown)
Disease caused (hepatitis viruses)
Virus
classification:
The ICTV
classification
scheme
ICTV =
International
Committee on
Taxonomy of
Viruses
Classify viruses
based on Order,
Family, Copyright 2013 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. All rights reserved.
Virus classification: The Baltimore
classification system
Developed by Nobel laureate David Baltimore
Based around mRNA production methods
Separates viruses into seven classes
Virus identification: Electron
microscopy
The first step in identification rests on
visual observation of viral morphology
(not infallible).
Virus identification:
Nucleic acid analysis
Polymerase chain
reaction (PCR) and
reverse-transcriptase
PCR (RT-PCR, see
Toolbox 5.2)
Can be used to
identify viruses by
genome sequence
Can be used to study
viral evolution
patterns
A side-note on RT-PCR
This method is INCREDIBLY useful.
It is an adaptation of the PCR method
discussed in Chapter 1.
It uses an enzyme discovered in viruses in
the 1970s by Baltimore and Temin.
This enzyme takes RNA and converts it into DNA.
DNA is more stable than RNA.
DNA can then be amplified using the PCR process.
This method allows scientists to study the

RNA molecules produced by cells and viruses
infecting them.
Diversity of
viruses:
A side-note on RT-PCR
So how does it work?
RNA is isolated.
Primer, RT, nucleotides added
RT makes a complementary
DNA copy of the RNA.
Sample is heated to denature
strands and inactivate RT.
Primers, Taq pol, and
nucleotides are added.
Taq pol makes a second DNA
strand.
Further PCR cycles can
amplify the amount of DNA
produced.
Virus-like particles:
Are viruses the simplest pathogens?
Viroids:
Consist only of naked RNA
are extremely small (less than 400 nucleotides)
Have a high degree of internal
complementarity
Are resistant to ribonucleases
So far, only observed to cause disease in
plants
Satellite viruses (e.g.,
hepatitis D virus, HDV)
Require a helper virus
for their replication
Carry their own
capsid protein gene
Satellite RNAs
Also require a helper
virus for replication
Require the capsid
protein from the
helper virus
Prions (proteinaceous infectious
particles):
No nucleic acid, no genes just protein
Very different infectious agent
Responsible for transmissible
spongiform encephalopathies (TSEs),
such as mad cow disease
Prions (proteinaceous infectious
particles):
Replication method still unclear
Thought to revolve around conversion of
protein conformations from normal to
abnormal form over time
Virology today:
Whats next for virology?
Unsurprisingly, virology and medicine are
closely involved.
Virology examines cancer-causing oncoviruses.
Virology examines cancer-destroying oncolytic
viruses.
Viruses can even be exploited to deliver
working copies of genes to replace damaged
versions (gene therapy, experimental).
Virology today:
Unsurprisingly, virology and medicine
are closely involved.
Virology continues to be involved in
examination of new and emerging global
diseases (e.g., HIV).
Conclusion:
This chapters material completes
our tour of the cellular/acellular
microbial world.
Virology is just one component of this
world, but an astoundingly diverse
area with many important aspects for
life on this planet.
Now that we know WHAT microbes
are, well begin to examine what
they eat and how to grow them in

Viruses

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Chapter Outline:

A basic overview of viruses

A basic overview of viruses:

A basic overview of viruses:

A basic overview of viruses:

A basic overview of viruses:

A basic overview of viruses:

A basic overview of viruses:

A basic overview of viruses:

A basic overview of viruses:

A basic overview of viruses:

A basic overview of viruses:

A basic overview of viruses:

Insects feeding on plants

A basic overview of viruses:

Cultivation, purification, and

Cultivation, purification, and

Cultivation, purification, and

Cultivation, purification, and

Cultivation, purification, and

Simple letter/number combinations (T4 phage)

This method allows scientists to study the

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