Casting Processes

Sand casting
consists of placing a pattern (having the shape of the desired
casting) in sand to make an imprint, incorporating a gating system,
filling the resulting cavity with molten metal, allowing the metal to
cool until it solidifies, breaking away the sand mold, and removing
the casting
in the USA about 15 million tons of metal are cast by sand casting
used for machine tool bases, engine blocks, cylinder heads, and
pump houses

 Sands
silica sands (SiO2)
fine round grains can be closely packed and forms a smooth mold
surface
good permeability of molds and cores allows gases and steam
evolved during casting to escape easily
the mold should have good collapsibility to avoid defects in the
casting (tearing and cracking)
ability to with stand high temperatures
ability to retain shape under the action of metal flow
permeability
collapsibility

 Three basic types of sand molds

green sand (a mixture of sand, clay, and water)
cold box (various organic and inorganic binders are blended into
the sand to bond the grains chemically for greater strength)
no-bake molds (a synthetic liquid resin is mixed with sand, and the
mixture hardness at the room temperature

 Major components of sand molds

The mold is supported by a flask. Two piece molds consist of a cope
on top and a drag on the bottom. The seam between them is the
parting line.
A pouring basin or cup, into which the molten metal is poured.
A sprue, through which the molten metal flows downward.
A gate, which is located at the base of the sprue. Molds typically
contain a system of gates constructed to minimized turbulence in the
molten metal and control flow so that metal is supplies at a rate to
adequately supply the critical section thickness of the casting. Gating
systems often include passageways called runners.
Risers, which supply additional metal to the casting as it shrinks during
solidification.
Cores, which are inserts made from sand. They are placed in the mold
to form hollow regions.
Vents, which are placed in molds to carry off gases produced when the
molten metal comes into contact with the sand in the molds.

 Cores
used to form internal cavities or passages
they ar placed in the mold cavity before casting and are removed
from the finished part during shakeout and further processing
they must possess strength, permeability, ability to withstand heat,
and collapsibility
they are typically made of sand aggregates
the core is anchored by core prints (they are recesses that are
added to the pattern to support the core and to provide vents for
the escape of gasses)
or by metal supports, known as chaplets

 Shell mold casting

produces many types of castings with close tolerances and good
surface finishes at a low cost
a mounted pattern, made of a ferrous metal or aluminum, is heated
to 175-370 C, coated with a parting agent such as silicone, and
clamped to a box or chamber containing a fine sand coated with a
2.5 - 4.0% thermosetting resin binder
the sand mixture is blown over the heated pattern, coating it evenly
the assembly is placed in an oven to complete the curing of the
resin
the shell is formed by removing the pattern
two half shells are made and are clamped together in preparation
for pouring

 Thin walls (5 - 10mm)

gases easy to escape
walls are smooth, less resistance to flow of the molten metal,
produce castings with sharper corners, thinner section
more economical
the high quality of the finished casting can reduce cleaning,
machining, and other finishing costs
can produce complex shapes
it is also used in producing high precision cores

 Composite molds
made of two or more different materials
utilized in casting complex shapes (impellers for turbines)
molding materials are: shells, plaster, sand with binder, metal and
graphite
they increase the strength of the mold, improve the dimensional
accuracy and surface finish, and may reduce overall costs

 Expandable pattern casting (lost foam)

uses a polystyrene pattern which evaporates upon contact with
molten metal to form a cavity for the casting
one of the most important casting processes for the automobile
industry
the polystyrene pattern is coated with a waterbase refractory slurry,
dried, and placed in a flask. The flask is filled with loose fine fine
sand. The molten metal is poured into the mold.

 Advantages:
it is relatively simple process (there are no parting lines, cores,
or riser systems)
inexpensive flasks are sufficient for the process
polystyrene is inexpensive (complex shapes and various sizes)
the casting requires minimum finishing and cleaning
operations
the process is economical for long production runs
the process can be automated

 Plaster mold casting

the mold is made of plaster of paris (gypsum, or calcium sulfate)
with addition of talc and silica flour to improve strength and
control the time required for the plaster to set
these components are mixed with water and the resulting slurry is
poured over the pattern
after the plaster is set, the pattern is removed and the mold is dried
the mold halves are then assembled to form the mold cavity and
preheated to about 120 C for 16 hours
the molten metal is then poured into the mold

 Low permeability, the molten metal is poured either in a vacuum

or under pressure
material for patterns are: aluminum alloys, magnesium, zinc, and
some copper-base alloys
because of low thermal conductivity, the castings are cooled
slowly, yielding more uniform grain structure with less warpage
and better mechanical properties
high precision casting
used for casting gears, lock components, valves, fittings, tooling,
and ornaments

 Ceramic mold casting

the slurry is a mixture of fine grained zircon, aluminum oxide, and
fused silica, which are mixed with bonding agents and poured over
the pattern, which has been placed in a flask
because of the high temperature resistance, these molds can be
used in casting ferrous and other high temperature alloys

 Investment casting
(lost wax process)
used during the
period 4000-3000
BC
the pattern is
made of wax or
plastics

Addition of nucleant to the molten metal

close control of superheat of the molten metal
control of pouring techniques
control of cooling rate

 Vacuum casting
A schematic illustration of the vacuum casting process, or counter
gravity low pressure process (not to be confused with the vacuum
molding process) is shown in fig. 5.28. A mixture of the fine sand
and urethane is molded over metal dies and cured with amine
vapor. Then the mold is held with a robot arm and partially
immersed into molten metal held in an induction furnace. The
metal may be melted in air or in a vacuum. The vacuum reduces
the air pressure inside the mold to about two thirds of atmospheric
pressure, drawing the molten metal into the mold cavities through
a gate in the bottom of the mold. The molten metal in the furnace
is at a temperature usually 55C above the liquidus temperature;
consequently it begins to solidify within a fraction of a second.
After the mold is filled, it is withdrawn from the molten metal.

 Permanent mold
better heat conduction than expendable mold (faster cooling that
has affect on microstructure and grain size)
mold materials: steel, bronze, refractory metal alloys, graphite
core materials: shell or no-bake cores, gray iron, low carbon steel,
hot work die steel
molds are preheated to facilitate metal flow and reduce thermal
damage to the dies
process could be automated for large production runs
process is used mostly for aluminum, magnesium, and copper
alloys
good surface quality, close tolerances, uniform and good
mechanical properties and at high production rate
used to cast automobile pistons, cylinder heads, and connecting
rods, gear blanks for appliance, and kitchenware

 Slush casting
after the desired thickness of solidified skin is obtained, the mold
is inverted or slung, and the remaining liquid metal is poured out
used for small production runs (ornamental and decorative objects
and toys)

Pressure casting
the molten metal is forced upward by gas pressure (or by vacuum)
into graphite or metal mold

 Die casting
developed in the early 1900s
the molten metal is forced in the die cavity at pressures rangint
from 0.7 to 700 MPa
typical parts: transmission housing, valve bodies, carburetors,
motors, business machine and appliance components, hand tools,
and toys

Hot chamber process

 Cold chamber process

 Process capabilities and machine selection

die has a tendency to part
rated according to clamping force
25 to 3000 tons
selected according to die size, piston stroke, shot pressure, and
cost
single cavity, multiple cavity, or combined cavity
dies made of hot work die steel
dies may last half a million shots before wearing

 Centrifugal casting
utilizes the inertial forces caused by rotation to distribute the
molten metal into the mold cavities

True centrifugal casting

hollow cylindrical parts
molds are made of steel, iron, or graphite, and may be coated with
a refractory lining to increase mold life
mold surfaces can be shaped so that pipes with various outer
shapes, including square or polygonal, can be cast
inner surface remains cylindrical because the molten metal is
uniformly distributed by centrifugal forces

 Squeeze casting
solidification of molten metal under high pressure
combination of casting and forging
high pressure promotes heat transfer, resulting in a fine
microstructure with good mechanical properties and limited
microporosity
made to near net shape with complex shapes and fine surface
detail, from both ferrous and nonferrous alloys

 Casting techniques for single-crystal components

used for gas turbine blades usually made of nickel-base superalloys
conventional casting of turbine blades (investment with ceramic
mold)
polycrystalline grain structure makes it susceptible to creep and
cracking along grain boundaries under centrifugal force
directionally solidified blades
uses a chill plate at one end of the mold
no transverse grain boundaries, only longitudinal
single crystal growing
seed crystal dipped into solution and pulled slowly out while
being rotated
floating zone method involves polycrystalline silicon resting on
a single crystal silicon, heated by an induction coil, the single
crystal grows

 Rapid solidification
involves cooling of molten metals at rates as high as 10 6 K/s
insufficient time to crystallize (amorphous alloys or metallic
glasses)
typically contain iron, nickel, and chromium, alloyed with carbon,
phosphorus, boron, aluminum, and silicon
amorphous alloys exhibit corrosion resistance, ductility, and high
strength
useful magnetic properties make them attractive for magnetic
cores