At the end of this topic, students should

be able to :
differentiate and compute the normal and
shearing stresses (CO1: PO1, CO1: PO3)
compute the deformation caused by normal
and shearing stresses (CO1: PO1, CO1: PO3)
solve the composite material problem using
stress and strain concept (CO1: PO1, CO1:
PO3)
solve theoretically OR graphically the plane
stress problem (CO1: PO3)

Before any engineering structure can be

used, we have to ensure that it is able to
sustain the load
If the members are in equilibrium, the
resultant of the external forces will be
zero

NORMAL

or DIRECT STRESS

The average normal stress in the member is

obtained by dividing the magnitude of the
resultant internal force F by the cross
sectional area A.

In as much as the stress acts in a

direction perpendicular to the cut
surface, it is referred to as a NORMAL
stress.
Thus, normal stressed may be
either tensile or compressive. Our
sign convention for normal stresses is:
Tensile stresses are positive (+)

Compressive stresses are

negative (-)

Single body is a system of under

action normal stress acting through the
centroid of the cross section
The stress could be a tensile stress (+)
or a compressive stress (-)

Static or dead loads non fluctuating

stationary loads (generally cause by selfweight of structures)
Live loads moving loads
Impact or short loads loads caused by
sudden blows

Determine the stress in a bar of 20 mm

diameter if it is subjected to an axial load of 30
kN tension

SOLUTION
Normal stress, = P/A
Cross sectional area of bar, A = /4 d2
= /4 (20)2
= 314.16 mm2
Therefore, = 30 x 103 N/ 314.16 mm2
= 95.5 N/mm2

Equilibrium of a Particle
A particle is in equilibrium when the
resultant of all the forces acting on that
particle is zero

Equilibrium of a Rigid Body

A rigid body is in equilibrium when the
external forces acting on it form a
system of forces equivalent to zero

If the resultant force is zero, and the

resultant moment about one axis is
zero, then the resultant moment
about any other axis

F1 =
2kN

F2 =
2kN

Rigid body AB is in statically equilibrium under set of 2

forces.
Check whether true the rigid body is in statically equilibrium
Horizontal force = -2 + 2 = 0 kN
(correct)
Say, cut the rigid body into 2 equal sections at X, as shown
below;
F1 =
2kN

F2 =
2kN

F1 =
2kN

F1X = F2X =
?
?
X

But, rigid body AX and XB are also in statically equilibrium

under the force.
Horizontal force = 0
Applying to rigid body AX;
-F1 + F1x = 0 -2 + F1x =0; F1x =
2 kN
Applying to rigid body XB;
-F2x + F2x = 0 -F2x + 2 = 0, F2x =

Remember
sign convention for direct
2 kN
forces,
+v
e
-ve

+v
e
-ve

F2 =
2kN

Compute the normal force and the

normal stress in:
i) Section AB
ii)Section BC
iii)Section CD

3
2

Single body equilibirum check;

Fx =-350+250-80+180 = 0 (OK)
i) Section 1-1
F1-1
F1-1

F2-2

F2-2

F3-3

F3-3

Determine the direct stresses at section AB and BC

Shear stress is the type of stress that acts

tangential to a plane
Occurs due to the effect of shearing
stress which there is a tendency for a
material to break into two parts with one
sliding over the other

Measuring shear stress

If a bar is subjected to a direct load, then

it will change in length.
Strain, = change in length/original
length
= L/L
measure the deformation of the bar and is
non- dimensional
magnitude is so small, stated in microstrain,

also can be expressed as %

If a bar is subjected to a direct load, it

will deformed axially by changing its
length from L to L+L
The ability to change in length by L
before the material fail, is due to the
behaviour of material called as strain
Strain, = change in length/original
length
= L/L

Consider a bar of the length, L and a

constant cross-sectional area, A
Load, P is applied at the free end and
causing the bar to elongate

GAUGED
LENGTH

L+
L

= change in length/original length

= L/L

GAUGED
LENGTH
ELONGATED

Hookes Law state that strain is proportional to the stress causing it, providing that
the limit of proportionality has not been exceeded

RUPTURE
V
U

During the proportional limit,

the strain is proportional to
the stress causing it, provided
the limit of proportionality has
not been exceeded
Stress = constant x strain
= constant x
Constant, E = /

Region A Elastic Behaviour Region

The curve is a straight line throughout this region
The stress is proportionate to the strain
Depicts the linear elastic behaviour of material

Region B Yielding Region

A slight increase in stress above the elastic limit

The material is deformed permanently
The stress that caused this yielding is called as
yield stress or yield point
The elongation increases without any stress
changes
The deformation is called as plastic deformation

 Region C Strain Hardening

When the yielding has ended, a further load can be

applied to the material
The curve rises continually but becomes flatter
until reaches a maximum stress called as ultimate
stress
The material will be elongating and the crosssectional areas will decreases
Region D Necking

At the ultimate stress, the cross-sectional areas

begins to decreases in a localised region , and not
on overall length
As a results, a constriction or a neck gradually
tends to form in this region as the material
elongates further
The material breaks at the fracture stress

Under the action of a compressive load, a

rod 150 cm long, shortens by 3 mm.
Determine the strain.

Solution :
Strain, = L/L
= -3 mm / 1500 mm
= -2 x 10 -3

REMEMBER: IS IN RADIAN

180 O = RADIAN

Introduce due to uncertainties in the

loading condition, design procedures,
deteriorated due to weather, unexpected
loads, production methods, assumptions
=> ENSURE SAFETY OF STRUCTURAL
DESIGN
FOS = Maximum stress/allowable working
stress
Maximum stress is obtained from
experimental testing of the material

MAXIMUM OR
ULTIMATE STRESS

ALLOWABLE
STRESS

FOS = max/allow

OR

= max/allow

In above equation, FOS will be greater

or equal to 1.0 to avoid potential
failure

To design a simple connection, if a

member is subjected to a normal force
P at a section, its required area at the
section is determined from
A = P/allow

On another hand, if the section is

subjected to a shear force V, then the

required area at a section is
A = V/allow

P
a

allow

A = P/allow

E, sometimes called as elastic modulus, is a

constant value of a material.
i.e. Steel has E = 200 GPa = 200 x 109 N/m2

We can measure this value by finding

the gradient of the stress-strain

graph over the elastic region

An aluminium rod specimen has an initial

gauge length of 254 mm before the
tensile test. After been pulled by a force
of 165 kN, the gauged length increase to
300 mm. Determine the modulus of
elasticity of the specimen if the rod
diameter is 30 mm.

The elongation, L = 300-254 = 46 mm

Force required to elongate, P = 165 kN
Cross sectional area, A = /4 x 302 =
706.86 mm2
Therefore, direct stress, = P/A = 165
x 103/706.86 = 233.42 N/mm2
Original length = 254 mm
Strain, = L/L = 46/254 =0.1811
Therefore, from Hookes Law , E = /
= 1289 N/mm2 = 1.3 kN/mm2

Data taken from a stress-strain test for

a ceramic are given in table. The curve
is linear between the origin and the
first point. Determine the modulus of
elasticity
Stress
(Mpa)

Strain

0.00
232.4
318.5
345.8
360.5
373.8

0.0000
0.0006
0.001
0.0014
0.0018
0.0022

The corresponding strain at stress of 250 Mpa is

0.0006

Therefore, the modulus of elasticity, E

is equal to the gradient of stress-strain
graph

E = / = (250-0)/(0.0006-0)
= 416.67 kN/m2

L = PL/(AE)

Determine the deformation of the steel

rod shown in Figure below under the
given loads (E = 200 GPa)
A = 581 mm

300 kN

A = 194 mm
180 kN

300 mm 300 mm

120 kN

400 mm

A ns : 1.73 mm

It is a common experience that materials

expand on heating and contract on
cooling.
Consider a rod of a material has a length L
TO TO, then it increases to
at any temperature
a length L + L when heated to a
temperature T1 or decreases to a length LL if T1 is less than TO.
The increase/decrease of material due to
temperature effect depends on coefficient
of thermal of material

L at temperature TO

L
L at temperature T1 > To

L-L
L at temperature < To

SMALL GAP
ALLOWING
EXPANSION
OF DECK

BRIDGE
DECK
APPROCH SLAB

BRIDGE DECK SLAB APPROACH CONNECTION

SYSTEM

Due to change in length by L,

therefore the corresponding strain

= changes of length/original length

= L/L

L = original length x coefficient of thermal x temperature

changes
= L x x ( T1 To)

A steel rod, 20 mm diameter, and 1.5

m long, is constrained between
supports A and B. The material is
stress-free at 270C.
Determine the stress in the material
when the temperature increases to
500C.
E = 200 GPa. = 12 x 10-6/0C

L = 1.5 m
= 12 x 10-6/0C
Temperature changes = 50 27 = 230C
Changes in length, L = 1.5 x 12 x 10-6 x 23
= 0.000414 m =
0.414 mm
Strain in the bar, = L/L = 0.414/1500 =
0.000276
From Hookes Law,
= E
= 200 x 1o9 N/m2 x 0.000276
= 5.52 x 107 N/m2

Force = stress x area

= 5.52 x 107 x /4 x (20 x 10-3)2
= 17342 N
=17.34 kN

A more shorter formula to find forces

P = EA L/L
= EA (L T)/L = EA T

contraction
P

elongation

Longitudinal strain at x-direction, x = L/L

However, this x will be usually
accompanied by lateral dimension
reduction, in its breadth and depth

v = -y/x = -z/x = - lateral

strain/longitudinal strain
Usually 0.25 < v < 0.33

However, when the structural geometry has a very

thin dimension as compared with the other
dimensions on other axes, then the stress
components in the thin direction is considered to be
ZERO.

Example, as shown above, the wall has a

very thin dimension in the z-axis, so stress

component of the wall in the z-axis are ZERO.

For stress analysis , we just consider the plane

stress system of the wall as shown below;

The above system is called as the

PLANE STRESS system

Sign convention of all stresses

x +ve (to the right)
y +ve (upwards)
xy +ve (clockwise rotation based
on x direction)

i)

Principal stress = maximum, 1 and minimum, 2,

stresses

1 = avg + R
2 = avg R
Where
avg = (x + y)/2 and R = sqrt({[x - y]/2}2 +
xy2 )

x = 100 MPa, y = -70 MPa, xy = 30 MPa

avg = (100+(-70))/2 = 15 MPa
R
= sqrt ({[100-(-70)]/2}2 + (30)2 )
= 90.14 MPa
1 = avg + R = 15 + 90.14 = 105.14 MPa
2 = avg - R = 15 - 90.14 = -75.14 MPa

Orientation of the plane is given by

tan 2p = 2xy/(x - y) = 2(30)/(100-(-70))
= 0.353
2p = tan-1(0.353)
= 19.440 , 180+ 19.44
p = 9.720, 99.720

b) Maximum shear stress, max = (1 2)/2

= (105.14-(75.14)/2
= 90.14 MPa
Location of plane, tan2s = -(x - y)/(2xy)
= -(100-(70))/(2(30))
= -2.833
2s = tan-1(-2.833)
= 180- 70.60 ,
360- 70.60
s = 54.670, 144.70

c)
After rotated 300 clockwise

x = (100-70)/2 + (100+70)/2 cos(2(30)) + 30sin(2(30))

= 83.48 MPa

xy = -(100+70)/2 sin(2(30)) + 30
cos(2(30))

downwards)

X Plane
(100,30)

2s

X Plane
(100,30)

Y Plane (70,-30)

X Plane
(100,30)
O

Y Plane (70,-30)

R
X Plane
(100,30)

R
O

Y Plane (70,-30)
Circle centre =
(x + y)/2

X Plane
(100,30)

-75.1
B

105.1

Y Plane (70,-30)
1

X Plane
(100,30)

-75.1
B

2p = 19.44

105.1

Y Plane (70,-30)
1

-75.1

105.1

2p =180 + 19.44

xy max

90.1

X
(100,30)
O

Y (-70,-30)

-90.1

xy min

xy max

90.1

2s =-70.66
X Plane
(100,30)
O
B

Y Plane (70,-30)

-90.1

90.1

X
(100,30)
O

Y (-70,-30)
2s=180 -70.66

-90.1

xy min

X
(100,30)
O
B

ROTATED BY
2(30) = 60
83.5

Y (-70,-30)
58.6

-90.1