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Communications
INTRODUCTION
Practical information
Course material
Course Text Book:
Digital Communications: Fundamentals and
Applications by Bernard Sklar,Prentice Hall, latest
edition
Additional Reference Books:
Digital Communications, by Ian A. Glover and Peter
M. Grant, Pearson, Prentice Hall, 2004, 2nd edition,
Communication Systems. 3rd Edition, Simon Haykins
Modern Digital and Analog Communication Systems.
B.P. Lathi, 3rd Ed
Course Contents
Chapter 1
Some basic ideas of random variables and the additive white Gaussian
noise (AWGN) model are reviewed.
the relationship between PSD, autocorrelation and the basics of signal transmission
through linear systems are established.
Chapter-2
covers the signal processing step such as formatting, in order to make the
information signal compatible with a digital system
Chapter 3
receiver optimization
Chapter 4
General Coverage
Course Schedule
14-16 lectures
4-6 Quizes
2-4 Home assignments
1 Mid Term Exam
Practical Work
Final Exam
Score/Grading
Marks division
Mid Term Exam
20%
Assignment
10%
Quizes
10%
Practical
20%
40%
Expectations/Objectives
This end
Deliver the concepts of digital communications
Make You Understand about different blocks of digital
communication
What
Why
When
How
Eventually forming a prototype system
Running a Simulation to observe the Performance of System
Other side
Getting through this course (majority)
Getting Good Grade
Learn something new
Communication ?
Communication is a process by which information is exchanged
between individuals through a common system of symbols, signs, or
behavior and could be (Voice, Video or Data)
Communication systems are reliable and economical, efficient means
of communications could be
Public switched telephone network (PSTN), mobile telephone
communication (GSM, 3G, 4G...), broadcast radio or television and
navigation systems.
Device Challenges
Analog and RF Components
A/D Converters
Size, Power, Cost
Multiple Antennas
Multiradio Coexistance
BT
Cellular
FM/XM
GPS
DVB-H
Apps
WLAN
Processor
A/D
Media
Wimax
Processor
A/D
A/D
A/D
DSP
Design Challenges
Hardware Design
Precise components
Small, lightweight, low power
Cheap
High frequency operation
System Design
Converting and transferring information
High data rates
Robust to noise and interference
Supports many users
Network Design
Connectivity and high speed
Energy and delay constraints
Disadvantages
Heavy signal processing
Synchronization is crucial
Larger transmission Bandwidth
Non-graceful degradation
U
Pe
cx Eb/No
DCS vs ACS
During a finite interval of time DCS sends a waveform from a finite set of all
avail possible waveforms
Objective of DCS is
Not to reproduce a transmitted waveform with precision at Reciever,
but
To determine which of the waveform from finite set of waveforms was
transmitted by the transmitter (that is done by DSP techniques)
The error performance of DCS suffers primarily from two degradation types
loss in signal-to-noise ratio,
distortion resulting in an irreducible bit-error probability.
ACS sends waveform from infinite variety of waveforms with infinite
resolution
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Communication?
Main purpose of communication is to transfer information from a source to a
recipient via a channel or medium
Block
diagram
of communication system
Copper
Wire
To extract the sent information, from the received
Wireline Telephone Channels
signal, inspite of noise
Microwave Radio
Antenna,
Amplifier,
Demodulator,
Oscillator,
Converts
the information
provided
by Person,
the Power
Speaker
Fibre Optic Channels source, according to the channel.
TV
amplifier
Water, Air,
Vacuum ofTransducer,
Generator
informationAmplifier, Modulator,
Fax
AnalogOscillator,
or Digital Power amplifier, Antenna`
Satellite Channels
Source
Transmitter
Channel
Noise
Receiver
Recepient
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Communication Systems
Types of Info
Voice, data, video, music, email etc.
Types of communication systems
Radio and TV Broadcasting
Telephone Networks
Cellular Phones
Computer Networks (LANS, WANS, INTERNET)
Satellite Systems
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BS
UE
UE
UE
User Equipment (UE)
Lecture 1
Analog signals
Value varies continuously
x(t)
t
Digital signals
Value limited to a finite set
x(t)
t
Binary signals
Has at most 2 values
Used to represent bit values
Bit time T needed to send 1 bit
Data rate R=1/T bits per second
x(t)
1
0
1
0 0
1
0
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Regenerative Repeaters
Removal of signal redundancy
Cheaper to implement
All signals (e.g. data, TV, Telephone) can be represented in the same way (a bit is
a bit...) using ADCs
Information Representation
Communication
system
converts
information
into
electrical,
electromagnetic/optical signals appropriate for the transmission medium.
Analog Systems
Characterized by data whose value varies over a continuous
range
Environmental effects (Temperature, Atmospheric pressure etc)
convert analog message into signals that can propagate through
channel.
Analog signals converted into bits by sampling and quantizing (A/D
conversion)
Digital Systems
convert bits (digits, symbols) into signals
Computers naturally generate information as characters/bits
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These repeaters prevent the accumulation of noise along the path, which is
not possible with analog communication systems
Fig illustrates an ideal digital pulse propagating along txn line, shape of pulse is affected by
a. Non ideal freq transfer fn of txn line and circuits that causes distorting effect
b. Interference and unwanted electrical noise also distorts the waveform
Both these mechanisms cause the pulse shape to degrade as a function of line length
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Hardware flexibility
Digital hardware implementation is flexible and permits the use of microprocessors,
digital switching and VLSI ccts etc
Shorter design and production cycle
low cost
Use of LSI and VLSI ccts in the design of components and systems have resulted in
lower cost
Can combine different types of signals (i.e. data, voice, text, etc)
Data communication in computers is digital in nature whereas voice communication
between people is analog in nature
Two types of communication is difficult to combine over the same medium in the analog
domain.
Using digital techniques, it is possible to combine both format for transmission through a
common medium
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Different types of digital signals (data, voice, video) can be identically treated.( a bit is
represented as a bit)
For convenient switching, digital messages can be handled in groups called packets.
Easy to mix signals and data using digital techniques.(Combining of digital signals using
TDM is simpler than combining of analog signals using FDM).
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Noise
SOURCE
Source
Info.
Received
Transmitted
Received
info.
signal
signal
Transmitter
Receiver
Channel
User
Transmitter
Formatter
Source
encoder
Channel
encoder
Modulator
Receiver
Formatter
Source
decoder
Channel
decoder
Demodulator
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Main Points
Communication systems
communication channels
send
information
electronically
over
Output Transducer:
The signal is in desired format (analog or digital) at the output
Channel
Channel:
The communication channel is the physical medium that is used for
transmitting signals from transmitter to receiver
Wireless channels: Wireless Systems
Wired Channels: Telephony
Channel discrimination is on the basis of their property and
characteristics, like AWGN channel etc.
Source Encoder
In DC, signal is converted from source into digital signal but should
be represented by as few binary digits as possible.
In such a way this efficient representation of the source output
results in little or no redundancy. This sequence of binary digits is
called information sequence.
Source Encoding or Data Compression: the process of efficiently
converting the output of analog or digital source into a sequence of
binary digits is known as source encoding.
Source Decoder
At the end, if an analog signal is desired then source decoder tries to
decode the sequence from knowledge of the encoding algorithm,
that results in the approximate replica of input at the transmitter end.
Channel Encoder:
Information sequence is passed through channel encoder.
Purpose of channel encoder is to introduce, in controlled manner,
some redundancy in the binary information sequence that can be
used at the receiver to overcome the effects of noise and interference
encountered in transmission on the signal through the channel.
e.g. take k bits of the information sequence and map that k bits to
unique n bit sequence called code word.
The amount of redundancy introduced is measured by the ratio n/k.
Reciprocal of this ratio (k/n) is known as code rate.
Channel Decoder:
Channel decoder attempts to reconstruct the original information
sequence from
knowledge of code used by the channel encoder and
redundancy contained in the received data.
Digital Modulator:
The binary sequence is passed to digital modulator which in turns
convert the sequence into electric signals to be transmitted on
channel.
The digital modulator maps the binary sequences into signal wave
forms , for example if we represent 1 by sin x and 0 by cos x then we
will transmit sin x for 1 and cos x for 0.
Digital Demodulator:
The digital demodulator processes
Channel corrupted transmitted waveform and reduces the waveform to sequence
of numbers that represent estimates of the transmitted data symbols.
Main Points
Channel can introduce many types of errors due to thermal noise etc.
Demodulator and decoder should provide Low Bit Error Rate (BER).
Step Wise
Sampling
Quantization
Symbols to bits
Compression
Decoding includes
Decompression
Bits to symbols
Discrete encoder\Decoder
Used to correct channel Errors
Modulation\Demodulation
Used to map bits to waveform for transmission
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When Pulse modulation is applied to non binary symbols, the resulting wave form is
called M-ary Pulse modulation waveform e.g. PAM waveform
After Pulse modulation, each message symbol or channel symbol takes the form of
Base-band waveform i.e.
For RF, txn medium does not support propagation of pulse-like waveforms. Bandpass wave-forms are required, for which Band-pass modulation is used.
In Band-pass modulation, Base-band is converted to higher freq by a carrier.
The signal propagating over channel is impacted by channel characteristics,
described in the form of channel impulse response hc(t).
During txn, signal is distorted by AWGN, and received signal is termed as corrupted
version of transmitted signal si(t).
The received signal r(t) can be expressed as:
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At receiving end, Rxr front end/demodulator provides freq down-conversion for each rxd
Band-pass waveform r(t)
The demodulator restores r(t) to optimally shaped Baseband waveform z(t) for detection.
Equalization is needed to compensate for any signal distortion caused by non ideal x-ics of
channel impulse response hc(t).
Finally Sampling is used to transform the shaped pulse z(t) to z(T), and detection step
transforms z(T) to an estimate of the channel symbol
~
symbol mi (if there is no channel coding)
~
u
i
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Formatting
is used for digitizing only. So a system would use either Source coding or formatting, because
source coding includes the process of digitizing also.
Source coding
can be applied to analog or digital sigs, produces A/D conversion and removes redundant info.
is used for compression in addition to digitization of the source info, therefore is considered as
special case of formatting.
Advantage of source coding is to reduce the amount of required resources (e.g. Band-width)
Base-band signaling consists of binary sigs called PCM waveforms or line codes, non-binary
category of waveforms called M-ary pulse modulation is also used.
Band-Pass signaling is partitioned into coherent and non-coherent blocks
Demodulation i.e. recovery of waveforms is achieved with the help of reference waveform. when
phase info is used as ref for detection, the process is called Coherent detection while non
coherent detection is the process where phase info is not used as reference.
Channel coding is used to reduce the PB at the cost of txn BW or decoder complexity, it
deals with techniques used to enhance digital signals so that they are less vulnerable to
impairments such as noise, fading and jamming. Channel coding is partitioned into two blocks
such as waveform coding and structured sequences.
Waveform coding involves use of new waveforms for improved detection performance over
that of original waveforms.
Structured sequences involve the use of redundant bits to determine the error that
occurred due to noise on the channel. e.g. ARQ (aut repeat request) is one of the
techniques that recognizes the error and asks the user to retransmit. FEC (fwd error
correction) is another tech that has the capability of auto correcting the error. (block,
convolutional and turbo coding etc)
Multiplexing and Multiple-access combine signals having diff characteristics or originating
from diff sources, so that they can share comm source (e.g. spectrum, time, space etc).
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Amplitude Modulation
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Frequency Modulation
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Comparison
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