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Structure
Part Two
Conti...
lift opposes weight and thrust opposes drag. Drag
and weight are natural forces to be found in
anything to be lifted from the ground and moved
through the air. Thrust and lift are artificially created
forces that allow the Aircraft to fly by overcoming
the natural forces of Drag and Weight. The engine
and propeller produce the Thrust to overcome the
Drag. The wing produces Lift to overcome the
Weight or gravity. During straight and level flight at
a constant speed:
LIFT = WEIGHT and THRUST =
DRAG
Aerofoil
An Aerofoil is a device that gets a reaction
from air moving over its surface. When it
is moved through the air it produces lift.
Wings, horizontal and vertical tail surfaces
and propellers are all examples of aerofoils.
A cross sectional view of an aerofoil
Axis of Rotation
Intersect at the centre of gravity are
imaginary lines about which the aircraft
may rotate about in flight.
Centre of Pressure
Is the imaginary point where the resultant of all
aerodynamic forces of an aerofoil is
considered to be concentrated at any given time.
Chord Line
The Chord Line - is the straight line between the
centre of the leading edge and the
centre of the trailing edge.
DRAG
Is the force which tends to resist an aerofoils
passage through the air. Drag is always parallel
to the relative wind and perpendicular to lift.
Drag varies as the square of the velocity.
LIFT
Is the force produced by an aerofoil perpendicular
to the relative wind. (The vertical component of the
resultant vector is that which opposes gravity).
Control Surfaces
Ailerons are located at the trailing edge of
the wings, and are movable surfaces that
control movement about the longitudinal
axis.
Elevators
The Elevators control movement about the
lateral axis, this is called pitch. The
elevators are hinged to allow the surface to
swing up and down.
Changing the position of the elevators alters
the camber of the aerofoil and this
increases or decreases the lift it produces.
Rudder
The rudder surface controls movement of the
aircraft light about its vertical axis.
This is called yaw. The rudder is a hinged surface
which swings from left to right and is attached to
the vertical stabiliser or fin. Its action is similar to
the elevator except that it produces movement in
the yaw axis, swinging the nose from side to side.
Application of the left pedal starts a yaw to the left
and the right pedal to the right.
Spoilers
Spoilers are located in the outer third of
each wing. When deployed a spoiler kills
the lift over that portion of the wing while
the other wing retains full lift and induces
roll.
Conti...
A rotary-wing aircraft consists of the following
four major units:
1. Fuselage
2. Landing gear
3. Main rotor assembly
4. Tail rotor assembly
STRUCTURAL STRESS
TENSION
Tension is defined as pull. It is the stress of
stretching an object or pulling at its ends.
Tension is the resistance to pulling apart or
stretching produced by two forces pulling in
opposite directions along the same straight
line. For example, an elevator control cable is
in additional tension when the pilot moves
the control column.
COMPRESSION
If forces acting on an aircraft move toward each
other to squeeze the material, the stress is called
compression. Tension is pull, and compression is
push. Compression is the resistance to crushing
produced by two forces pushing toward each other
in the same straight line. For example, when an
airplane is on the ground, the landing gear struts are
under a constant compression stress.
Conti...
SHEAR
Cutting a piece of paper with scissors is an example
of a shearing action. In an aircraft structure, shear is a
stress exerted when two pieces of fastened material
tend to separate. Shear stress is the outcome of
sliding one part over the other in opposite directions.
The rivets and bolts of an aircraft experience both
shear and tension stresses.
BENDING
Bending is a combination of tension and
compression. For example, when bending a piece
of tubing, the upper portion stretches (tension)
and the lower portion crushes together compression).
The wing spars of an aircraft in flight are subject to
bending stresses.
BENDING
Bending is a combination of tension and
compression. For example, when bending a
piece of tubing, the upper portion stretches
(tension) and the lower portion crushes together
(compression).
The wing spars of an aircraft in flight are
subject to bending stresses.
CONSTRUCTION MATERIALS
METALLIC MATERIALS
The most common metals used in aircraft
construction are aluminum, magnesium,
titanium, steel, and their alloys.
Alloys
An alloy is composed of two or more metals. The
metal present in the alloy in the largest amount is called
the base metal. All other metals added to the base metal
are called alloying elements. Adding the alloying
elements may result in a change in the properties of the
base metal. For example, pure aluminum is relatively
soft and weak. However, adding small amounts or
copper, manganese, and magnesium will increase
aluminum's strength many times. Heat treatment can
increase or decrease an alloy's strength and hardness.
Alloys are important to the aircraft industry.
Aluminum
Aluminum alloys are widely used in modern
aircraft construction. Aluminum alloys are
valuable because they have a high strength-toweight ratio.
Aluminum alloys are corrosion resistant and
comparatively easy to fabricate. The outstanding
characteristic of aluminum is its lightweight.
Magnesium
Magnesium is the world's lightest structural
metal.
It is a silvery-white material that weighs twothirds as much as aluminum. Magnesium is
used to make helicopters.
Magnesium's low resistance to corrosion has
limited its use in conventional aircraft.
Titanium
Titanium is a lightweight, strong, corrosion
resistant metal.
Recent developments make titanium ideal for
applications where aluminum alloys are too
weak and stainless steel is too heavy.
Additionally, titanium is unaffected by long
exposure to seawater and marine atmosphere.
Steel Alloys
These steels contain small percentages of
carbon, nickel, chromium, vanadium, and
molybdenum.
Another type of steel used extensively is
stainless steel. Stainless steel resists corrosion
and is particularly valuable for use in or near
water.
NONMETALLIC MATERIALS
In addition to metals, various types of plastic
materials are found in aircraft construction. Some
these plastics include transparent plastic, reinforced
plastic, composite, and carbon-fiber materials.
Transparent Plastic
Transparent plastic is used in canopies,
windshields, and other transparent enclosures.
Reinforced Plastic
Reinforced plastic is used in the construction of
wingtips, stabilizer tips, antenna covers, andflight
controls.
Composite and Carbon Fiber Materials
High-performance aircraft require an extra high
strength-to-weight ratio material. Fabrication of
composite materials satisfies this special requirement.
Composite materials are constructed by using several
layers of bonding materials (graphite epoxy or boron
epoxy). These materials are mechanically fastened to
conventional substructures.
WhatisanAircraftControlSystem?
Thesecontroldevicesarehingedormovablesurfaces
throughwhichtheattitudeofanaircraftiscontrolled
during takeoff, flight, and landing. They are usually
dividedintotwomajorgroups:
1)primaryormainflightcontrolsurfacesand
2)secondaryorauxiliarycontrolsurfaces.
HelicopterControlSystem
Thehelicopterisaflyingmachinewithuniqueflight
characteristics,uniquecontrolsystem.
Threeimportantcontrolhelicoptercontrolterms:
CollectivePitchControl
Cycliccontrol
Directional(yaw)control
I.CollectivePitchControl
Itputsacollectivecontrolinputintotherotorsystem,meaningthatitputs
either "all up", or "all down" control inputs in at one time through the
swashplate.
Itisalsoknownasthe"Stickcontrol.
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II.CyclicPitchcontrol
Theleftandright,forwardandaftcontrol.Itputsinonecontrolinput
intotherotorsystematatimethroughtheswashplate.
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III.DirectionalControlSystem
Attheveryrearofthehelicopter'stailboomisthetail
rotor a vertically mounted blade very similar to a
conventionalairplanepropeller.
Thistailrotorisusedtocontroltheyaw,orrotation,of
thehelicopter(i.e.whichwaythenoseispointing)and
toexplainthiswefirstneedtounderstandtorque.
Torque is a natural force that causes rotational
movement, and in a helicopter it is caused by the
spinning main rotor blades; when the blades are
spinning then the natural reaction to that is for the
fuselage of the helicopter to start spinning in the
oppositedirectiontotherotors.
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Asthetailrotorspinsitgeneratesthrustinexactlythesame
wayasanairplanepropellerdoes.
This sideways thrust prevents the helicopter fuselage from
tryingtospinagainstthemainrotor,andthepitchangleof
the tail rotor blades can be changed by the pilot to control
theamountofthrustproduced.
Increasing the pitch angle of the tail rotor blades will
increase the thrust, which in turn will push the helicopter
roundinthesamedirectionasthemainrotorblades.
Decreasing the pitch angle decreases the amount of thrust
and so the natural torque takes over, letting the helicopter
rotateintheoppositedirectiontothemainrotors.
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Conti...
The pilot's pedals are mounted on a bracket on the cockpit floor in front
of the seat. Pedal adjusters are provided to adjust the pedal distance for
individual comfort. Microswitches are mounted in each sub-pedal
assembly to allow the pilot to introduce directional control inputs
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Helicopter
Helicopter is a rotary-wing aircraft which is
consists of the following four major units:
1. Fuselage
2. Main rotor assembly
3. Landing gear
4. Tail rotor assembly
Fuselage
The fuselage holds the aircraft together and
accommodates passengers and cargo, as
appropriate.
Main rotor
The main rotor serves to provide lift and
propulsion to the helicopter.
Landing skids
The skids serve to stand the helicopter while
on the ground.
Tail rotor
The tail rotor prevents the helicopter from spinning as
well as turns the aircraft.
Cockpit
The cockpit, at the front end of the fuselage, is the
control and command centre, where the pilots sit and
all the instrumentation is located.
Cabin
The cabin serves to accommodate passengers and cargo.
Tail boom
The tail boom holds the tail rotor for stabilising the
aircraft.
Introduction
In an aircraft the hyraulic system
supply circuit consists mainly th
pump filter check valves accumulato
and the pressure relief valve on the
delivery side.
On the suction side of the pump,
there is the reservior along with its
pressurization circuit