CmpE294 02 Audience Org

CmpE294
Lecture 2
Audience & Organization
Agenda
Characteristics of technical writing

Analyzing your audience
Individual characteristics of readers
Understanding multiculturalism
Structure of a written report
Organizing technical information
Agenda

Understanding Why You are Writing

Is the purpose of writing
To inform: to provide information without expecting any action on
the part of the reader?
To instruct: to give information in the form of directions,
instructions, procedures, so that readers will be able to do
something?
To propose: to respond to a request for proposals (RFP) or to
suggest a plan of action for a specific problem?
To recommend: to suggest an action or series of actions based on
alternative possibilities that have been evaluated?
To persuade: to convince readers to take action, to change their
attitudes or behaviors based on valid opinions and evidence?
Writing for the Audience

Since the goal of technical writing is information
transfer (sending a clear, noise-free message), what
you say and how you say it depends on the audience.
The nature of the audience determines the level of
technical detail, the amount of context/background
information you provide, and the organization of the
document.
It is important to understand who is reading the
document so that the information you convey is
transferred effectively. As a writer, it is crucial to have an
awareness of the readers knowledge, ability level, and
interest in the information being conveyed.
Satisfying Document Specifications

Document specifications include
Adherence to document type (genre)--understanding what is
expected in an email vs. a memo, knowing the difference between a
proposal and a recommendation report, and understanding how to
write up the results of an experiment vs. the conclusions;
Format--many document types specify a specific format be
followed, for example, various professional journals and government
documents require specified
font
margins
labeling for figures and graphics
line and paragraph spacing
number of words per document or per section
section headings and subheadings
referencing format
Providing Accurate Information

Being truthful and accurate are the cornerstones of
technical writing.
Technical writing is rarely about opinion. Technical and
scientific writing is grounded in fact.
It always wrong and unethical to falsify information and
data, and that is particularly true in technical writing.
Providing inaccurate or wrong information causes
readers to question your credibility and reliability.
It is important to always report the facts about a
particular experiment, even if those facts are not what
were expected or desired.
Organizing Information
In general, technical writing is organized in a direct,
logical, linear format.
ALL technical documents have a clear
Introduction: this is where you provide motivation
and context/background for the
topic/material/information being presented in the
document; always provide the big picture before
jumping into the technical details
Body: this is where the information is expounded
upon and where technical details are given
Conclusion: this is where the main points are
reemphasized and where the big picture is once
again discussed
Expressing Information Clearly

While you may be able to say the same thing in a variety
of ways, being clear and direct are the most important
characteristics of technical writing.
Expressing information clearly is crucial; you NEVER
want to make your reader work harder than necessary to
understand the message/idea/information you are
conveying.
Sentences must have a single meaning with no room for
ambiguity.
Technical writing should be direct, not suspenseful.
Technical writing is not the place for poetic language,
inspiring quotations or innuendo.
Using Efficient Wording

Economy is the name of the game when it comes to technical
writing. Technical documents should be clear and concise, never
wordy and flowery. Always choose words and phrases that are
simple and straightforward.
Verbiage Efficient
commence start
endeavor try
a large number of many
in the majority of instances usually
the reason why is that
because
alternate choices alternatives
completely eliminate
eliminate
connected together connected
an analysis of the data will be made data will be analyzed
made a selection selected
Making Ideas/Information Accessible

One of the first things you will notice about technical documents is
the page layout and organizational structure.
Technical writing is known for its use of headings and
subheadings and for the way information is made easily accessible
by grouping material into chunks.
Paragraphs are usually much shorter in technical writing than in
other types of writing.
Pages full of text only and long paragraphs are discouraging to
readers.
Readers want to be able to quickly access information, and the best
way to help them find the info they need is to provide them with
visual cues such as descriptive headings, and to make use of
numbered lists and bulleted items.
Any time you can make information visual by creating figures and
graphics, try to do so.
Figures and tables provide visual relief from all of the text on the
page and help the reader to access important data.
Eliminating Noise
Nothing is more irritating to a reader than sorting through
misspellings, poorly written sentences, typos, and punctuation
problems. Errors such as these make the writer look uneducated and
unprofessional. Careful editing and proofreading are essential
steps in the writing process!
Be sure you know the basic rules for using
Commas
Colons
Semicolons
Hyphens
Acronyms (RAM, NASA, GPA)
Numbers (writing the word vs. using the numeral)
Equations (use symbols)
Units of Measure (70 ns, 100 dB)abbreviations and symbols
Eliminating Noise
G. Larson & Steve Martin, Wait! Wait! Cancel
that. I guess it says helf, in The Complete Far
Side 1980-1994 (2 volumes), Andrews & McMeel,
Kansas City, MO, 2003, p. 205.
Using Appropriate Writing Style

Technical writing tends to be rather dry. This is because, compared
to other types of writing, the purpose of technical writing is to inform
rather than to entertain.
Engineers and scientists are called upon to record and document
information in an objective manner, and in doing so, the style of
writing reflects this objective approach.
Avoid Personal Pronouns: for most documents, it is unnecessary
to use I, we, us, and especially you.
Instead of saying, I (or we) took measurements, it is acceptable
to say, Measurements were taken.
Passive Voice is OK: while active voice is preferred in most cases,
it is completely acceptable to use passive voice in technical writing.
Passive Control of the flow is provided by a DJ-12 valve.
Active A DJ-12 valve controls the flow.
Passive An ASM chart is shown in Figure 3.
Active Figure 3 shows an ASM chart.
Using Appropriate Writing Style

Technical documents (including most emails) should
employ a formal writing style.
Conversational language and phrasing should be
avoided.
Conversational This lab gave us a good feel for state
machines.
Formal This exercise provided a good background on
state machine design.
Conversational The D-flip flop was hooked up to the
board.
Formal The D-flip flop was connected to the board for
testing.
Agenda

Analyzing Your Audience

The form and content of every technical document are
determined by the situation that calls for that document:
your audience and your purpose.
In actuality, it is more crucial to first define your audience
than it is to first define your purpose.
In school, most students have a basic idea of what their
teachers expect and what they want to read.
This is not the case in business and industry, where you
will have to write to audiences with different purposes
and different skill levels.
Benefits of Audience Analysis

Understanding who will read and use your document
helps the writer determine
Type of document
Content, organization, and emphasis
Style of writing
Format, visuals, and layout
Three Steps in Analyzing an Audience

Identify primary and secondary audiences.
Identify basic categories of readers.
Identify individual characteristics of readers.
Classifying your readers

Start by classifying your readers into two categories:
a primary audience of people who use your document
in carrying out their jobs
a secondary audience of people who need to stay
aware of developments in the organization but who
will not directly act on or respond to your document
Audience Considerations
Primary audience
Those who will use the document to take an action or
to make a decision
Those to whom a document is addressed
Secondary audience
Forwarded from primary audience (committee,
reviewers, etc.)
Unforeseen readers
Categories of Readers
The first step in analyzing your audience is to classify each reader
on the basis of his or her knowledge of the subject.
Basically, every reader can be classified into one of the following
four categories:
Experts read to gain an understanding of the theory and its
implications.
Technicians read to gain a hands-on understanding of how
something works or how to carry out a task.
Managers read to learn the bottom-line facts to aid in making
decisions.
General readers read to satisfy curiosity and for self-interest.
Experts
The expert is a highly trained individual with an
extensive theoretical and practical understanding of the
field.
When you write to an expert, you can get right to the
details of the technical subject without spending time
sketching the fundamentals.
An expert is generally comfortable with long, wellconstructed sentences and highly technical vocabulary.
The expert can understand more sophisticated diagrams
and graphs than can most readers.
Experts
Read for how and why things work

Need and want theory
Will read selectively
Can handle mathematics and terminology of the field
Expect graphics to display results
Need new terms defined
Expect inferences and conclusions to be clearly, but
cautiously, expressed and well supported
Technicians
The technician has practical, hands-on skills and takes
the experts ideas and turns them into real products and
procedures.
The technician fabricates, operates, maintains, and
repairs mechanisms of all sorts, and sometimes teaches
other people how to operate them.
When you write to a technician, do not include complex
theoretical discussions; instead, include schematic
diagrams, parts lists, and step-by-step instructions.
A technician will generally prefer short or medium-length
sentences and common vocabulary.
Technicians
Know the inner workings of the product
Read for How-To information
Expect emphasis on practical matters
Parts described and numbered
Graphics show a process or task
May have limitations in mathematics and theory
May expect theory of a higher level
http://www.cisco.com/c/en/us/td/docs/switches/lan/catal
ystexpress520/user/guide/ug/setup.html
Managers
The manager coordinates and supervises the day-to-day activities
of the organization.
A manager must juggle constraints financial, personnel, time and
informational and make logical and reasonable decisions quickly.
A manager has to get a job completed on schedule; he does not
have time to study a theory the way that an expert does.
A manager wants to know the bottom line.
When you write to a manager, try to determine his or her technical
background; then choose an appropriate vocabulary and sentence
length.
If you know your reader will take your information and use it in a
document that will be addressed to higher-level executives, make
your readers job easier by including an executive summary to help
your reader see the major points you are making.
Managers
Read to make decisions
Have more interest in practice than theory
Need plain language and simple graphics
Expect implications, conclusions, and recommendations
expressed clearly
Read selectivelyskimming and scanning
Have self-interests as well as corporate interests
Guidelines for writing for a manager audience
Focus on managerial implications, not technical

details.
Use short sentences and simple vocabulary.
Put details in appendices.
EXECUTIVE SUMMARY
SUMMARY
ANON, Incorporated has developed a process for removing organic films and
residues from various industrial substrates that requires only exposure to sulfur
trioxide gas (SO3) followed by a simple water rinse.
No liquid chemicals are required for many industries, but is particularly
attractive in semiconductor and flat-panel display manufacturing where
conventional methods for cleaning are cumbersome, costly, and
create large amounts of hazardous and toxic chemical wastes. By substantially
reducing the liquid chemicals now used for semiconductor wafer cleaning, as
shown below, the ANON SO3 process can cut the cost of cleaning by more
than half.
CONVENTIONAL METHODS
~ 500,000 GALLONS
SO3 METHOD
~ 500 GALLONS
A Very Large Reduction in the Annual Consumption of Hazardous and Toxic Liquid
Chemicals Can Be Expected by a Typical Semiconductor Plant Using the New,
Sulfur Trioxide Cleaning Method
BACKGROUND
In the semiconductor industry, a photosensitive organic material called
photoresist is used to define the pattern of a semiconductor device on each
silicon wafer. After use, the photoresist must be thoroughly removed without
leaving any residues before the next manufacturing step can start. Complete
removal of photoresist is an integral part of a large number of process steps in
semiconductor manufacturing. In fact, as many as 25 out of perhaps 300
manufacturing steps may require thorough removal of photoresist.
Conventional techniques used for many years for removing these films and
residues require the use of hot solutions of sulfuric acid mixed with hydrogen
peroxide and, in many cases, the use of toxic, organic solvents. Usually, where
manufacturing processes have hardened the photoresist, a preliminary plasma
ashing step is required prior to cleaning with liquid chemicals in order to
completely remove the tough film.
VALUE PROPOSITION
In electronics cleaning applications, ANON's sulfur trioxide process has
substantial environmental, economic, and technical value advantages
over conventional technologies. Perhaps the most dramatic of these is
a very large reduction in the use of wet-chemicals and toxic organic
solvents. On a comparable-use basis, liquid chemical consumption for
photoresist removal can be reduced by roughly 3 orders of magnitude,
as illustrated above. The savings in consumables costs, alone,
amounts to more than $300,000 each month for a typical
semiconductor manufacturing plant. The total savings from all sources
is twice this amount, or more, and can reduce the cost of cleaning by
well over 50%. In addition to such readily quantifiable savings,
the manufacturer and the community will also see large reductions in
the hazardous and toxic waste stream, as well as reductions in the
energy resources consumed during the manufacture, use and disposal
of these hazardous chemicals.
The value proposition for this new process is not limited solely to reductions
in hazardous and toxic chemical wastes and energy conservation. Other
important features of the SO3 process distinguish it from conventional
cleaning methods and offer comparably dramatic improvements in cleaning
capability to semiconductor and flat panel display manufacturers. The
technical value advantages provided by these features include the ability to
completely remove very tough organic films such as high-dose (e16) ion
implanted photoresist without leaving residues, the prevention of cleaning
damage to sensitive and costly semiconductor wafers, and low temperature,
extremely uniform cleaning.
Beyond even these advantages, two of the most significant benefits for
manufacturers include the capability for removing tough photoresist in the
presence of low-k dielectric films without using damaging oxygenplasma
processes; and reductions in production cycle time and work-in-process
inventories resulting from the replacement of a two-step cleaning process
(ash plus wet-clean) with a one-step process (SO3 clean).
BOTTOM LINE
Recognizing such dramatic environmental, economic and technical
advantages for both business and the community, the California Energy
Commission and the Department of Energy (DOE) provided a substantial
grant through the Office of Industrial Technology NICE3 program
(National Industrial Competitiveness through Energy, Environment, and
Economics). This grant was instrumental in making this unusual
technology available to industry.
Organic film and residue cleaning with SO3 now offers a radically new
approach to industrial cleaning requirements. This is a process that
simultaneously meets the needs of high-tech manufacturing, business
economics and the environmental concerns of industry in the 21st
century.. a criterion for manufacturing whose time has come.
General Readers
The general reader or layperson reads out of curiosity or selfinterest.
When you write to a general reader, use a simple vocabulary and
relatively short sentences when you discuss subjects that might be
confusing.
Translate jargon into standard English idiom.
Use an informal tone.
Use analogies and examples to clarity your discussion.
Discuss the human angle how the situation affects people.
Sketch in any special background that will help your reader follow
your discussion more easily.
For the general reader, concentrate on the implications of what you
are presenting.
Accommodating the Multiple Audience

A modular report is a successful way to handle
addressing a multiple audience.
Such a report might contain an executive summary for
the managers, a full technical discussion for the experts,
an implementation schedule for the technicians, and a
financial plan in an appendix for accountants.
Agenda

Learn about your readers

Tally what you already know and dont know
about your audience.
Interview people.
Search for information on the Internet.
Read documents your readers have written.
Chapter 5. Analyzing Your Audience and Purpose
2010 by Bedford/St. Martin's
40
Individual Characteristics of Readers

Determine individual characteristics of readers by
asking:
Who is your reader?
What are your readers attitudes and expectations?
Why and how will your reader use your document?
Who is your reader?

What is the readers
education?
professional experience?
job responsibility?
personal characteristics?
personal preferences?
cultural characteristics?
Readers Attitudes and Expectations

What is the readers attitude toward you?
Writerpositive? negative? neutral?
What is the readers attitude toward the subject?
Subjectinterested? not? favorable? unfavorable?
What are the readers expectations about the
document?
Reportanxious to have? yet one more to get
through?
Why and how?

Why and how will your reader use your document?
Why is the reader reading your document?
How will the reader read your document?
What is the readers reading skill?
What is the physical environment in which the reader will
read your document?
Location where document usedlegibility issues
Access timeshort/long
Pressuresrapid response; slow response
How do Readers Read?

Skim
Purpose: Get drift
Implication: Summaries
Scan
Purpose: Find item
Implication: Headings
Search
Purpose: In-depth reading
Implication: Details
Surface Cultural Variables

Seven major cultural variables that lie on the surface:
political
economic
social
religious
educational
technological
linguistic
Cultural Variables Beneath the Surface

Six cultural variables that lie beneath the surface:
focus on individuals or groups
distance between business life and private life
distance between ranks
nature of truth
need to spell out details
attitudes toward uncertainty
Cultural Variables Beneath the Surface

As you consider cultural variables beneath the
surface, keep four points in mind:
Each variable represents a spectrum of attitudes.
The six variables do not line up in a clear pattern.
Different organizations within the same culture can
vary greatly.
An organization's cultural attitudes are fluid, not
static.
Determining Your Purpose

Ask yourself:
What do I want this document to accomplish?
What do I want readers to know or believe?
What do I want readers to do?
Developing Audience Awareness

Write as if you are providing answers to
embedded questions
Imagine questions the reader will naturally
ask about the system and answer them
Anticipate the reader's expectations and
fulfill them
Agenda

Understanding Multiculturalism
Technical communication across different cultures is now
a fact of life in the business, technology, and academic
worlds. Following are five basic categories of differing
cultural patterns:
Values and beliefs
Language use
Document development and structure
Legal systems
Guidelines for writing or addressing multicultural
audiences
Values and beliefs

Gender roles Women play a more significant role in the
workplace in Western cultures than they do in Middle
Eastern or Asian cultures.
Attitudes toward time Although time is viewed as a
linear concept in Western cultures, it is seen cyclically in
many other cultures with the focus on the present and no
consideration given to the beginning or end.
Language use
Vocabulary and sentence length
United States Readers expect simple vocabulary and short
sentences.
Europe Readers expect more complicated vocabulary and
long sentences.
Numbers
People in the United States use the foot, pound, second (fps)
method of numbering.
People in the rest of the world use the meter, kilogram, second
(mks) or metric method of numbering.
Americans use periods to separate numbers from decimals, and
commas to separate thousands from the hundreds. Much of the
rest of the world reverses this usage.
United States:
3,425.6
Europe:
3.425,6
Language use
Dates
The American style of writing dates is different from
most other styles.
US
March 2, 1999
3/2/99
Europe
2 March 1999
2/3/99
Japan
2 March 1999
99/2/3
A clear, unambiguous style is preferable, e.g.
yyyy-mm-dd: 1999-03-02
This style of date also has the desirable property
that it will be sorted correctly

Individual and group orientation
The typical U.S. professional is highly individualistic in outlook;
the average Asian professional is highly group oriented.
U.S. writers will express a personal point of view; Asian writers
will refer to their organization rather than express a personal
viewpoint.
The nature of evidence
In most Western countries, evidence is empirical and testable.
In many other cultures, tradition, authority, and group consensus
are more important than empirical evidence.
Organization
Americans tend to structure documents deductively, from the
general to the particular.
In much of the rest of the world, the organization is inductive,
from the particulars to the general.

Directness and indirectness
Americans expect explicit, direct documents with the structure
clearly spelled out.
Many European and Asian cultures value indirectness and
digression.
Graphics
Symbolic graphics that are clear in one culture may not translate
well.
Document design
The use of white space in documents varies among cultures.
The English use a denser, more crowded design than
Americans, and the Japanese place a focal point in the center of
the page.
Format
Many cultures use set patterns for the salutation, the opening
and closing paragraphs, and the complimentary close in
business letters.

Amount of detail
In high-context cultures, such as the Japanese, the
meaning is communicated more implicitly than
explicitly. The reader must infer the details through
the context and tone of the document; therefore,
documents tend to be relatively short.
In low-context cultures, such as the United States, the
message is stated explicitly and fully supported by
details; therefore, documents tend to be long.

Business customs
Since business customs vary greatly from culture to
culture, it is important to adhere to the appropriate
customs when dealing with people from other cultures.

Following are several areas to note for differing business customs:
Business protocol This includes greetings, business dress, and
gift giving.
The level of formality observed and expected varies from culture
to culture.
Nonverbal communication - Hand gestures that are acceptable in
one culture can be offensive in another. Europeans generally allow
less distance between two people talking than do Americans.
Seating arrangements in offices and meetings also vary among
cultures.
Punctuality Lateness is expected in some cultures; punctuality is
the norm in others.
Bribery In many cultures, this is a requirement for doing business,
but it has serious legal and ethical implications for Americans.
Legal Systems
In foreign countries, you must adhere to local laws.
In many countries, insulting the government is against
the law.
In the US, being able to insult the government is a
basic right, and somewhat of a beloved tradition.
However, this has no place in a technical document
anyway.
Publishing maps may be problematic where boundaries
or geographic names are in dispute.
Guidelines for multicultural audiences

Guidelines for writing or addressing multicultural audiences:
Limit your vocabulary.
Try to use words that have only one meaning.
Define abbreviations and acronyms in a glossary.
Avoid jargon (unless you know your readers are familiar with it).
Avoid idioms.
Keep sentences short.
Be sensitive to the other culture when creating graphics.
Have the document reviewed by someone from the other culture.
Characteristics of Technical Writing

Characteristics of Technical Writing,
http://upcp.ece.gatech.edu/docs/2031/Characteristic
s_of_Technical_Writing.pdf
,
References
Markel, M. (2007). Technical Communication. New York:
Bedford St. Martins
64
Gail Palmer
School of Electrical and Computer
Engineering
Georgia Institute of Technology
Analyzing Your Audience
By: Gail Palmer
(Based on information from Mike Markel, Technical
Communication, Sixth Edition, Boston: Bedford/St.
Martin's, 2001.)
http://users.ece.gatech.edu/~gpalmer/ece8020/documen
ts/general/AnalyzingYourAudience.doc
Audience Analysis, Thomas L. Warren, Oklahoma State

University
studentorganizations.missouristate.edu/assets/stc/audie
nce_analysis.ppt
Audience Analysis, Dr. Shelley Thomas ENGL 3100

faculty.weber.edu/sthomas/3100/Audience_Analysis.pp
t ENGL 3100 - Professional and Technical Writing Weber
State University, Ogden, Utah
Agenda

The Written Report: Why?

You waste your time unless you can communicate
what you have been doing with it.
The medium for most technical communication is the
written report, so you had better be good at it!
Some characteristics of reports

1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
Everybody hates to write them,

Everybody hates to read them,
Almost nobody does read them,
They take a HUGE amount of time to write,
They are absolutely CRUCIAL to YOUR
success in engineering!
Further characteristics of reports

They are also almost always:
6. Too long,
7. Badly organized,
8. Incomplete.
Structure: the Strategy of Style

If a man can group his ideas, then he is
a writer.
Robert Louis Stevenson
Ending
Middle
Beginning
Organization of a Technical Document

The organization of a
scientific document
can be viewed as a
beginning, middle, and
ending
Conclusions
Back Matter
Ending
Middle Sections
Middle
Title
Summary
Introduction
Beginning
Beginning
The beginning of a document typically consists of:
Title
Summary
Introduction
You might have other elements in a documents beginning:
Table of contents
Acknowledgments
Definitions of key abbreviations.
Beginnings
Beginnings prepare readers for
understanding the work
Title
Summary
Introduction
orients readers to
document
tells readers what

happens in document
prepares readers
for the middle
Several names for summaries

Summary
Abstract
Technical
Abstract
Descriptive
Abstract
Informative
Abstract
Executive
Summary
Two approaches to summaries

This paper describes a new inertial navigation system
for mapping oil and gas wells. In this paper, we will
compare the mapping accuracy and speed for this new
Descriptive
system against the accuracy and speed for conventional
systems.
This paper describes a new inertial navigation system

that will increase the mapping accuracy of oil wells by a
factor of ten. The new system uses three-axis navigation
that protects sensors from high-spin rates. The system
Informative
also processes its information by Kalman filtering (a
statistical sampling technique) in an on-site computer.
Test results show the three-dimensional location accuracy
is within 0.1 meters for every 100 meters of well depth, an
accuracy ten times greater than conventional systems.
Introduction
A document's introduction prepares
readers for the discussion
Topic?
Importance?
Background?
Arrangement?
Introduction
Introduction defines scope and limitations

Women may not
experience the
same effects
Medical histories
not considered
scope
Proposed Study
on Effects of Alcohol
on Life Expectancy
Three classes of drinkers:

non-drinkers
moderate drinkers
heavy drinkers
Other effects,
such as exercise,
not considered
Ten-year study
Men surveyed
limitations
Purpose of introduction
A strong introduction tells readers why the research is important
This paper presents a design for a platinum catalytic
igniter in hydrogen-air mixtures. This igniter has
application in nuclear reactors. One danger at a nuclear
reactor is a loss-of-coolant accident. Such an accident
can produce large quantities of hydrogen gas when hot
water and steam react with zirconium fuel rods. In a
serious accident, the evolution of hydrogen may be so
rapid that it produces an explosive hydrogen-air mixture
in the reactor containment building. This mixture could
breach the containment walls and allow radiation to
escape.
Our method to eliminate this danger is to intentionally
ignite the hydrogen-air mixture at concentrations below
those for which any serious damage might result.
importance
The middle of a report

In the middle of a report, you present your work
Choose a logical
strategy
Make sections
and subsections
Heading
Subheading
Subheading
Heading
Subheading
Subheading
Subheading
Heading
[Sandia, 1985]
Common strategies for the middle

Chronological
[Maizels, 2001]
Spatial
[Pratt & Whitney, 2000]
Common strategies for the middle

Parallel
Parts
Corel Corporation
Flow
[Sandia, 1985]
Section headings
Section headings should be descriptive and parallel
Parallel
Non-Parallel
Descriptive
Non-Descriptive
Introduction
Introduction
Background
Background
Marx
MarxGenerators
Generators
Line
Pulse
Line Pulse
Beam
BeamGeneration
Generation
Transporting
TransportingBeam
Beam
Pellets
Pellets
Results
Results
Conclusions
Conclusions
Introduction
Introduction
Past
PastDesigns
Designsfor
forParticle
ParticleBeam
BeamFusion
Fusion
New
NewDesign
Designfor
forParticle
ParticleBeam
BeamFusion
Fusion
Charging
ChargingMarx
MarxGenerators
Generators
Forming
FormingLine
LinePulse
Pulse
Generating
GeneratingParticle
ParticleBeam
Beam
Transporting
Particle
Transporting ParticleBeam
Beam
Irradiating
Deuterium-Tritium
Irradiating Deuterium-TritiumPellets
Pellets
Results
Resultsof
ofNew
NewDesign
Design
Conclusions
Conclusionsand
andRecommendations
Recommendations
Dividing a section into subsections

When you divide a section into subsections, all the
pieces should be of the same pie
New
New Design
Design for
for Particle
Particle Beam
Beam Fusion
Fusion
Charging
Charging Marx
Marx Generators
Generators
Generating
Generating Particle
Particle Beam
Beam
Irradiating
Deuterium-Tritium Pellets
Pellets
Headings in a list without secondary headings

Organization is hidden when headings occur in a long list without
secondary headings
Performance of
Performance of
the Solar One Receiver
the Solar One Receiver
Introduction
Steady State Efficiency
Average Efficiency
Start-Up Time
Operation Time
Panel Mechanical Supports
Tube Leaks
Conclusion
Introduction
Receivers Efficiency
Steady State Efficiency
Average Efficiency
Receivers Operation Cycle
Start-Up Time
Operation Time
Receivers Mechanical Wear
Panel Mechanical Supports
Tube Leaks
Conclusion
IMRaD
Many journal articles follow a set organization named IMRaD
Introduction
Materials and Methods
Discussion
Results
Common Report Formats

There are a number of accepted formats for any type
of document that you write, but
The commonly accepted standard for engineering
reports is IMRaD - Introduction - Methods - Results - and
Discussion.
Note: Your reports do not necessarily need to follow this
format strictly, but should use this as a guideline, and
contain all of the information discussed.
Ending
Conclusions
Analysis of Results
In a strong ending, you analyze

results and give a future perspective
Analyze results from

overall perspective
Future Perspective
Several options:
Make recommendations
Discuss future work
Repeat limitations
Appendices
Use appendices to supply background for secondary
audiences
Appendix A
Concern About the Greenhouse Effect
For almost a hundred years, experts have been concerned with
the increasing concentrations of gases such as carbon dioxide,
methane, and nitrogen oxides in the earth's lower atmosphere. These
gases are natural by-products of combustion. Figure A-1 illustrates the
correlation between global temperature and carbon dioxide
concentrations...
Appendices
Use appendices to supply secondary or tangential
information to primary readers
Appendix B
Project Stormfury
In 1961, the United States Weather Bureau and the Department of
Defense (Navy) began a project to reduce the strength of hurricanes. The
project, called Project Stormfury, uses cloud seeding, a process used to
produce rainfall and reduce hail in thunderstorms. In Project Stormfury,
silver iodide crystals, similar in structure to ice, are dispersed by airplanes in
the upper reaches of cloud formations just outside the hurricane's eye where
the winds are highest. Initial results showed that wind speeds decreased
between 1530% after seedings...
Glossary
For secondary readers, use a glossary to define unfamiliar terms
Glossary
burst point: the exact point in space where an
atomic bomb is detonated.
clear visibility: a viewing range of twenty miles.
fallout: the descent to the Earth's surface of
radioactive particles from a cloud contaminated
with the fission products of a nuclear explosion.
hypocenter: the point on the earth's surface directly
below the burst point; also called ground zero.
Citations
Failing to cite the contribution of others
can be a fatal flaw in your career
[Franklin, 1952]
James Watson surreptitiously

looked at Rosalind Franklins work
[Luzzati, 1950]
Watson did not give enough

credit to Franklin
Agenda

Principles for Organizing Technical Information
Analyze your audience and purpose.
Use conventional patterns of organization.
Display your organizational pattern prominently in

the document.
95
Displaying Your Arrangement

Steps for displaying your arrangement prominently:
Create a detailed table of contents.
Use headings liberally.
Use topic sentences at the beginnings of your
paragraphs.
96
Typical Patterns of Organization

chronological
spatial
general to specific
more important to less important
comparison and contrast
classification and partition
problem-methods-solution
cause and effect
97
Organizing Information Chronologically

Guidelines for organizing information chronologically
Provide signposts.
Consider using graphics to complement the text.
Analyze events where appropriate.
98
Process Description
Aerobic systems treat wastewater using natural processes
that require oxygen. Bacteria that thrive in oxygen-rich
environments work to break down and digest the
wastewater inside the aerobic treatment unit. Like most
onsite systems, aerobic systems treat the wastewater in
stages. These stages can include:
pretreatment
aeration
settling/clarifying
disinfection
disposal
99
Process Description
Pretreatment
Some aerobic systems include a pretreatment step to

reduce the amount of solids in the wastewater going into the
aeration chamber that the microorganisms cannot degrade.
Solids include greases, oils, toilet paper and other materials
that can clog the unit and prevent effective treatment. Some
pretreatment methods include a septic tank, a primary
settling compartment in the treatment unit or a trash trap.
Pretreatment is optional but can greatly improve a unit's
performance (NSFC, 1996).
100
Process Description
Aeration
The aeration chamber is where the aerobic microorganisms decompose
wastes in the water. An aeration system consists of an air pump, piping and
diffusers that force air into the aeration chamber. The air pump compresses
air to flow into the aeration chamber and the diffuser forces the air into the
water (Lesikar, 1999b).
The process most aerobic units use to treat wastewater is referred to as
suspended growth. The forced air mixes with the wastewater in the aeration
chamber, and the oxygen supports the growth of aerobic bacteria that digest
the solids in the wastewater. This mixture of wastewater and oxygen is
called the mixed liquor. The treatment occurring in the mixed liquor is
referred to as suspended growth because the bacteria grow as they are
suspended in the liquid, unattached to any surface.
An alternative design to the suspended growth process is the attached
growth system. These units treat wastewater by taking a surface made of
material that the bacteria can attach to, and then exposing that surface to
wastewater and air. This is done either by rotating the surface in and out of
the wastewater or by dosing the wastewater onto the surface. Pretreatment
is required. The air needed for the process is either naturally present or is
supplied mechanically.
101
Process Description
Aerobic treatment unit (Texas A&M University)

102
Process Description
Settling / Clarifying
Unfortunately, the bacteria cannot digest all of the solids in the
mixed liquor, and these solids eventually settle out as sludge. Many
aerobic units include a secondary chamber called a settling
chamber or clarifier where excess solids can settle. Other designs
allow the sludge to accumulate at the bottom of the tank.
In aerobic units designed with a separate settling compartment, the
sludge returns to the aeration chamber (either by gravity or by a
pumping device). The sludge contains bacteria that also aid in the
treatment process. Although, in theory, the aerobic treatment
process should eventually be able to consume the sludge
completely, in practice, the sludge does build up in most units and
will need to be pumped out at least once a year so that the capacity
of the unit is not compromised.
103
Process Description
Disposal
Although properly operated and maintained aerobic units are very effective,
the wastewater leaving the unit is not ready to be returned to the environment
and must receive final treatment or disinfection. Methods for final treatment
include discharge to a soil absorption field, a sand filter or an
evapotranspiration bed.
Disposal fields are the most common method of final treatment used for septic
systems. If an aerobic system is being used in place of a septic system or to
replace a failing septic system, a disposal field may not be an option.
However, evapotranspiration beds, drip irrigation and sand filters are other
final disposal methods can also be used in aerobic treatment systems.
The dissolved oxygen contained in wastewater from an aerobic unit can
prevent the soil pores from clogging by improving the growth of the soil
microorganisms.
104
Organizing Information Spatially

Guidelines for organizing information spatially:
Provide signposts.
Analyze events where appropriate.
105
Example of Spatial Organization
http://docs.oracle.com/middleware/1213/eventprocessing/CEPGS/img/spatialepn.png
106
Organizing from General to Specific

Guidelines for organizing information from general to
specific:
Provide signposts.
107
Organizing from General to Specific
Good example of general to specific

http://computer.howstuffworks.com/cloud-comp
uting/cloud-computing.htm -
108
Organizing from More to Less Important

Guidelines for organizing information from more
important to less important:
Provide signposts.
Explain why one point is more important than another.
109

A Three-Point Program to Improve Service
What we have learned from the recent conference of semiconductor
purchasers and from our own focus groups is that customers expect and
demand better service than the industry currently provides. By this I dont
mean returning phone calls, although that kind of common courtesy remains
important. I mean something much more ambitious and difficult to attain:
helping our customers do their jobs by anticipating and addressing their
total needs. For this reason, I have formed a Customer Satisfaction Panel,
chaired by Maureen Bederich, whose job will be to develop policies that will
enable us to improve the quality of the service that we offer our customers.
I have asked the panel to consider three main areas:
1. improving the ease of use of our equipment
2. improving preventive and corrective maintenance
3. improving our compatibility with other vendors
products
110

Improving the Ease of Use of Our Equipment
The most important area to improve is user friendliness. When

we deliver a new product, we have to sit down with the customers
and explain how to integrate the new product into their
manufacturing processes. This process is time consuming and
costly not only for them but for us. For this reason, we must
explore the option of automating the integration process.
Automated process control, which is already common in such
industries as machine-vision, would allow our customers to
integrate our semiconductors much more efficiently. In addition it
would help them determine, through process control, whether our
equipment is functioning according to specification.
111

Improving Preventive and Corrective Maintenance
The second most important area for study is improving preventive
and corrective maintenance. Our customers will no longer tolerate
down times approaching 10 percent; they will accept no more than 2
percent to 3 percent. In the semiconductor equipment field,
preventive maintenance is critical because gases used in vapordeposition systems periodically have to be removed from the inside
of the equipment. Customers want to be able to plan for these
stoppages to reduce costs. Currently we have no means of helping
them plan.
We also have to assist our customers with unscheduled
maintenance. Basically this means modularizing our equipment so
that the faulty module can be pulled out of the equipment and
replaced on the spot. This redesign will take many months, but I am
sure it will become a major selling point.
112

Improving Compatibility with Other Vendors Products
Finally, we have to accept the fact that no one in our industry is
likely to control the market, and so we have to make our products
more compatible with other manufacturers. Making our products
more compatible means we must be willing to put our people on-site
and see what our customers setup is and help them determine how
to modify our product to fit in efficiently. We can no longer offer a
take it or leave it product.
I hope you will extend every effort to work constructively with
Maureen and her committee over the coming months to ensure that
we improve the overall service we offer our customers.
113
Organizing by Comparison and Contrast

Guidelines for organizing information by comparison
and contrast:
Establish criteria for the comparison and contrast.
If appropriate, determine whether each criterion calls
for a required characteristic or a desired
characteristic.
Evaluate each item according to the criteria you have
established.
Organize the discussion.
114
Organizing by Comparison and

Contrast
Good example using a decision matrix
http://www.techrepublic.com/blog/the-enterprise-cloud/go
ogle-apps-v-office-365-head-to-head-comparison-of-featur
es/
Organizing by Classification or Partition

Guidelines for organizing information by classification or partition:
Choose a basis of classification or partition that fits your
audience and purpose.
Use only one basis of classification or partition at a time.
Avoid overlap.
Be inclusive.
Arrange the categories in a logical sequence.
116

The Human Ear
The ear consists of three basic parts - the outer ear, the middle ear, and the inner ear.
Each part of the ear serves a specific purpose in the task of detecting and interpreting
sound. The outer ear serves to collect and channel sound to the middle ear. The middle
ear serves to transform the energy of a sound wave into the internal vibrations of the
bone structure of the middle ear and ultimately transform these vibrations into a
compressional wave in the inner ear. The inner ear serves to transform the energy of a
compressional wave within the inner ear fluid into nerve impulses which can be
transmitted to the brain. The three parts of the ear are shown below. The ear consists
of three basic parts - the outer ear, the middle ear, and the inner ear. Each part of the
ear serves a specific purpose in the task of detecting and interpreting sound. The outer
ear serves to collect and channel sound to the middle ear. The middle ear serves to
transform the energy of a sound wave into the internal vibrations of the bone structure
of the middle ear and ultimately transform these vibrations into a compressional wave
in the inner ear. The inner ear serves to transform the energy of a compressional wave
within the inner ear fluid into nerve impulses which can be transmitted to the brain. The
three parts of the ear are shown below.
117

Parts of the Human Ear
PhysicsClassroomTutorial(n.d.)
http://www.glenbrook.k12.il.us/GBSSCI/PHYS/Class/sound/u11l2d.htm
118

Modern Graphical Representation of the Human Ear
http://www.healthline.com/human-body-maps/ear
119
Organizing by Problem-Methods-Solution
Guidelines for organizing information by problemmethods-solution:
In describing the problem, be clear and specific.
In describing your methods, help your readers
understand what you did and why you did it that way.
In describing the solution, don't overstate.
Choose a logical sequence.
120
The Problem
Earlier this year we were proud to offer the industrys largest array of add-on
multimedia products for both our own computers and those of other
manufacturers. Our offerings in cards, CD-ROM drives, speakers, and other
peripherals were unrivaled in both quantity and quality. And the response was
terrific: in our first three months we sold more than 12,000 multimedia kits and
58,000 other peripheral units.
But growing pains soon became apparent: we logged more than 9,000
multi-media-related customer-support calls in that same period. What was the
cause of this unprecedented customer-support problem?
After analysis of our customer-support data, we concluded that two factors were
at work:
Add-on multimedia kits, even those meant for our own computers, were not
necessarily compatible with the hardware or software our customers were using.
We heard too many horror stories about how the kits were installed properly, but
when the customers tried to reboot, the operating system was gone.
Some 70% of the customers were novices, as opposed to less than 40% for our
other product lines, and our documentation was inadequate to the task.
121
Meeting the Challenge
We recognized that being a pioneer in the industry had it costs: we
were the first to encounter the problems that are now pervasive in
the industry and well publicized in the literature. And because we
were the first, we took our bumps from the journals for the resulting
problems with customer satisfaction. We instituted a four-point plan
to meet the challenge:
We instituted a new quality-control program. Now every product
is treated just the way a customer treats it. It is taken out of the
box, plugged in and turned on. We make sure that the printer
setup is accurate and that the hardware and bundled software
are compatible. At our weekly audit meeting we review that
weeks quality-control data; each team leader is now empowered
to stop production to investigate a recurrent or unexplained
problem.
122
We instituted a Process-Improvement Team, a group of 12 veteran
employees committed to improving customer support and
customer satisfaction. Among the first innovations of the ProcessImprovement Team was the creation of more than 200 documents
to assist users with common problems encountered when installing
our kits and using common software. These documents are on our
Web site and can be faxed to customers at no charge when they
call a special toll-free number.
We expanded our use of novices in our preproduction focus
groups and in the quality-control program. We are concentrating
on how the novice uses our products: in our expansion into the
family market we expect to find that an increasing percentage of
our customers are first-time computer owners.
We instituted a Quality Team of 15 employees charged with the
responsibility of seeking Manufacturings ideas about quality and
efficiency standards.
123
Organizing by Cause and Effect

Guidelines for organizing information by cause and
effect:
Explain your reasoning.
Avoid overstating your argument.
Avoid logical fallacies.
124
Cause and Effect

The following website gives a good example of
effectively using the cause and effect pattern.
http://climate.nasa.gov/causes/
125
Mechanical Engineering Techniques

An Introduction to Technical Report Writing
http://xa.yimg.com/kq/groups/23984101/1736085682/
name/Lec3-Objectives+in+Technical+Writintg.ppt
References
Markel, M. (2007). Technical Communication. New York:
Bedford St. Martins
Michael Alley, slides for The Craft of Scientific Writing ,
1/2004,
http://www.writing.engr.psu.edu/handbook/visuals.html
127

CmpE294 02 Audience Org

Încărcat de

Informații document

Drepturi de autor

Formate disponibile

Partajați acest document

Partajați sau inserați document

Opțiuni de partajare

Vi se pare util acest document?

Este necorespunzător acest conținut?

Drepturi de autor:

Formate disponibile

CmpE294 02 Audience Org

Încărcat de

Drepturi de autor:

Formate disponibile

CmpE294

Characteristics of technical writing

Characteristics of technical writing

Understanding Why You are Writing

Writing for the Audience

Satisfying Document Specifications

Providing Accurate Information

Expressing Information Clearly

Using Efficient Wording

Making Ideas/Information Accessible

Using Appropriate Writing Style

Using Appropriate Writing Style

Characteristics of technical writing

Analyzing Your Audience

Benefits of Audience Analysis

Three Steps in Analyzing an Audience

Classifying your readers

Read for how and why things work

Focus on managerial implications, not technical

Accommodating the Multiple Audience

Characteristics of technical writing

Learn about your readers

Chapter 5. Analyzing Your Audience and Purpose

2010 by Bedford/St. Martin's

Individual Characteristics of Readers

Who is your reader?

Readers Attitudes and Expectations

Why and how?

How do Readers Read?

Surface Cultural Variables

Cultural Variables Beneath the Surface

Cultural Variables Beneath the Surface

Determining Your Purpose

Developing Audience Awareness

Characteristics of technical writing

Values and beliefs

Document development and structure

Document development and structure

Document development and structure

Document development and structure

Document development and structure

Guidelines for multicultural audiences

Characteristics of Technical Writing

Audience Analysis, Thomas L. Warren, Oklahoma State

Audience Analysis, Dr. Shelley Thomas ENGL 3100

Characteristics of technical writing

The Written Report: Why?

Some characteristics of reports

Everybody hates to write them,

Further characteristics of reports

Structure: the Strategy of Style

Organization of a Technical Document

tells readers what

Several names for summaries

Two approaches to summaries

This paper describes a new inertial navigation system

Introduction defines scope and limitations

Three classes of drinkers:

The middle of a report

Common strategies for the middle

Common strategies for the middle

Dividing a section into subsections

Headings in a list without secondary headings

Materials and Methods