BAHARI

RINGKASAN JURNAL

RHIZOPHORA

NAMA

NPM

NAMA

NPM

SHARLYN CHRISTINA

260110123014

SITI NUR ZAHARAH BINTI MOHD YUNOS

260110132019

MOHAMAD NAZREEN BIN MOHD TAHA

260110132015

NAJEEHA A. HADI

260110132020

NUR FAIZAH HAMIR

260110132016

MOHAMAD AMIRULZAKI BIN MOHAMAD RAFI

260110132023

THENMOLI LATCHUMANAN

260110132017

SHALOME SHOBANI

260110132025

SHAKILA DEVI A/P VIJAINTHIRAN PILLAI

260110132018

KESHNI DEVI TANNIMALAI

260110132026

INTRODUCTION

 One of two that make up genus rhizophora and consists of three species
R. Mucronata,
R. Stylosa,
R. Apiculata.

Two hybrids:

R. X lamarckii
R. X annamalai

They tolerate a range of flooding regimens, soil types, and other physical site factors.
Mangrove are known to play a vital role in shoreline protection, enhancement of water quality in
nearshore environments, and in supporting estuarine and marine food chains

DISTRIBUTION

 Mangroves form a unique and dominant ecosystem comprised of intertidal marine plants
These halophytic (salt toler- ant) plants thrive in saline conditions and daily inun-dation between
mean sea level and highest astronomi-cal tides

Provide vital structure as habitat and food for similarly adapted resident and transientfauna
Mangrove plants exchange gases from exposed roots using special lenticels
Just 70 species around the world are considered to be mangroves
Define and characterize mangrove plants, such as but-tress trunks and roots providing support in soft

sedi-ments, aboveground roots allowing vital gas exchange in anaerobic sediments, and physiological
adaptations for excluding or expelling salt.

Its have developed such essential attributes, rep-resenting independent instances of co-evolution
over millions of years to form todays mangrove habitats.

BOTANICAL DESCRIPTION

Preferred scientific names

Rhizophora mucronata lamk.

Rhizophora stylosa griff
Rhizophora apiculate BI
Family

Rhizophoraceae (mangrove family)

Common names

Abat (ceram,indonesia)
Bako (java, indonesia)
Indo-west pacific stilt mangroves (english)

Size

Indo-west pacific stilt mangroves: medium to tall trees, may reach to 30-40m in height
Commonly much shorter, 5-8m
Stem diameters: 15-35cm *taken just above the highest prop root
Form

Stilt mangrove are rambling to columnar trees with distinct aboveground prop roots
Trees tend to be shorter stature and more spreading in shape on the seaward edge of stands or in
higher salinity

Taller, single-stemmed trees: found behind waters edge of stands midstream

Multistemmed: commone in more arid or marginal habit

Flowering

Typically pale yellow at maturity with lobes, rarely

Buds ate obovate, green when immature to pale yellowish green as they mature
Petals are lanceolate to linear, creamy white, woolly to hairless
Stamens are pale yellow
Style is pale green
Leaves

Opposite, simple, light or dark green, obovate, leathery, margins revolute, bluntly acute apex
Upper leave surface is smooth, shiny
Cork wart spots occur on under surface
Leaf emergence is mostly around nov-feb in the southern, may-aug in the northern hemisphere

Fruits

Pear-shaped, elongate, waist constriction, smooth brown surface, calyx lobes elongate
spreading

Seeds

Viviparous; trees produce seeds hidden in the mature fruit, germinate on the parent tree
Viviparous seedling is called hypocotyl; one hypocotyl is usually produce from each fruit
Hypocotyl; narrowly cylindrical, elongate, green, smooth with irregular small brown lentivels
Fruiting; when mature hypocotyl fall, occurs chiefly from nov to jan in the southern, may to july in
the northern hemisphere

Bark

Gray to dark gray and heavily fissured, occasionally ed brown and smooth
Prop roots are sturdy even when relatively thin
Rooting habit

Mature tree; distinctive, sturdy, aboveground prop roots surrounding the stem base
Conforms to the oxygen deficient (anoxic) conditions commonly measyred in mangrove
sediments.

GENETICS & ASSOCIATED PLANT

SPECIES

 Mangroves Consists Of Three Species (Two Being Closely Allied, R.Mucronata ,R. Stylosa, And
R .Apiculata ,And Two Hybrids , R X Lamarckii And R. X Annamalai .

Rhizophora Mucronata And R.Stylosa Are Sibling Species For Example Possibly R.Stylosa =R.
Mucronata Var. Stylosa (Griff.) Salvosa. And Together They Characterize Most Stands Of Iwp
Stilt Mangroves.

The Range Of R.Mucronata Is The Widest Of All Iwp Species , Extending From East Africa
Where It Occurs As The Sole Rhizophora , To The Western Pacific Where It Overlaps With All
Other Iwp Species.

SIMILAR SPECIES
Stilt mangroves are distinguished from atlantic-east pacific red mangrove species principally by
the spiked ,

Rhizophora mucronata and R. Stylosa have slender bract at the base of mature buds
Hybrid characteristics are shown in R. X lamarckii where it has key characters intermediate
between R.Apiculata and R.Stylosa.

Hybrid can often be larger and taller than neighboring parent trees.

GENETICS
R.Mucronata and R.Stylosa appear closely related because they are distinguished by style length
They are largely not separated geographically ,with a significant portion of the range of each
overlapping the other.

Their range do include areas of exclusivity in the west and east

There are indication that morphological and ecological characteristics vary for each taxon across
their wide ranges

R.Mucronata in east africa

has the same expose water adge habit as R.Stylosa in northern australia .

 R.Mucronata and R.Stylosa have naturally evolved and dispersed.

There is a curious pattern in separate sympatric occurences where these species are easily
distinguished in some populations.

R. Apiculata is readily distinguished from R.Mucronata and R.Stylosa

They appears more prevalent in estuaries influeced by larger and more continous freshwater
flow ,and it found in a continous distributional range .

ASSOCIATED PLANT SPECIES

Planting with the other species is highly recommended ,particularly terrestrial and beach strand
associates growing naturally

The idea is to establish and achive whole-of-bank stabilization

Stilt mangroves occupy a range of substrate types ,including coral ,rocks ,gravel ,sand ,and mud
It is important to choose associated species best suited

COMMONLY FOUND
The associated species vary with geographic location ,latitude ,soil type ,estuarine upstream
location and tidal position

IWP stilt mangroves may be associated with sonneratia alba and avicennia marina downstream
Downstream stands of stilt mangroves are backed by sand ridges and beach margins.
(Calophyllum spp.,Thespesia spp. ,Casuarina spp. ,Barringtonia asiatica and cocos nucifera)

Upstream in riverine estuaries of tropicalcoastline of larger islands and continental margin.

(Sonneratia caseolaris, S.Lanceolata and aegiceras corniculatum)

ENVIRONMENTAL PREFERENCE &

TOLERANCE

Climate

Mangroves thrive in tropical and subtropical environments

Drier locations such as western australia, stunted but dense thickets of mangroves
Elevation range

0-6m ( 0-20ft) to sea level

Mean annual rainfall they grow in all rainfall conditions. Their extent, form and biomass
reflect the different rainfall condition.

Rainfall pattern- grows in summer or rainfall patterns climates

Dry season duration ( consecutive months with less than 40mm rain)

During drier months, mangroves grow on groundwater to sustain optimal growth.

El nino event causes damage to plants and reduces growth, due to decrease in freshwater
availability

TEMPERATURE
Mean annual temperature 20-30 C ( 68-86 F)
Mean maximum temperature of hottest month 23-38 C (73-100 F)
Mean maximum temperature of coldest month 13-18 C ( 55-64 F)
Minimum temperature tolerated- 10 C (50 F)
0

SOILS
Soil texture- plants grow best in light, medium and heavy texture soils
Soil drainage- plants grow best in soils with fee and un-impeded drainage, as well as waterlogged
soils

Soil acidity- ph 5-8.5

Plants grow best in saline soils but can survive well in fresh water. Optimal salinity range is reported
to be 8-26 ppt to 34-36ppt for seawater

Drought stilt mangroves usually grow best in wetter conditions

MANGROVES AND CLIMATE CHANGE

Mangroves respond rapidly to temperature, rainfall and sea level as each species has defined
range for tolerance.

Mangroves are characteristically restricted to elevations between mean sea level and highest
tides, as sea level rises to survive.

Since mangroves have narrow optimal range, they will die off in areas that are not suited.
Indicator of change can be identified as incremental shifts such as total tidal wetland habitat
and in the salt marsh-mangrove ecotone affects moisture stress in saline environments.

 Mangroves grow best in full sun.

They have a very low tolerance of shade. However in eastern australia, R stylosa trees grow
under a closed canopy of avicennia marina.

Rhizopora seedlings are more shade tolerant.

The trees has no tolerant of fire.
They have low tolerance of sub-freezing temperatures.

 Waterlogging stilt mangrove trees are tolerant of daily tidal flooding up to depths of 2.5m (8
ft).They are intolerant of drying soils

They are highly tolerant of salt spray

Wind- found on the exposed waters edge of large riverine estuaries
Abilities stilt mangroves self- prune well in dense stands, but they commonly maintain lower
branches in more open locations

Coppice- poor coppice ability. If greater than 50% of leaves are removed from a tree, it will die.

GROWTH & DEVELOPMENT AND

PROPAGATION

GROWTH RATES
Vary with species,
spatial position in
the stand,
competition, vigor
and age

FLOWERING AND
FRUITING
Mangroves fruits and
flowering are distinctly
seasonal. Located in
cooler temperature and
higher latitudes.

GROWTH &
DEVELOPMENT
REACTION TO COMPETITION
Rapid earth growth of seedlings
of stilt mangroves in full
sunlight ensures their success
and dominance in preferred
estuarine and intertidal
conditions.

PROPAGATION
PROPAGULE COLLECTION
Mature propagules may be collected after they have fallen or been picked directly off trees.

PROPAGULE PROCESSING
Processing of propagules is not required for stilt mangroves altough damaged and insect
infested individuals should be removed.

PROPAGULE STORAGE
Propagules can be kept for atleat 6-7 days by storaging inbrackish water.

PROPAGULE PRETREATMENT
The pretreatment under 50C water bath for 5 minutes to kill the beetles and removed the risk of
establishment

DISADVANTAGES & BENEFITS

DISADVANTAGES
Mangroves poses few significant disadvantages when planted
within their native ranges.
Not especially susceptible to pests or pathogens and not have
been reported to host major pests or pathogens of important crop
species.

BENEFITS OF MANGROVE
Visual amenity and shoreline beautification.
Nutrient uptake, fixation and trapping.
Habitat use by fauna.
Mesoclimate.
Provide source of food and physical protection from predation.
Sanctuary niche for mature fauna, including migratory birds and fish, where mangrove
provide protection and a food resource.
Fishery products, including estuarine and coastal.
Carbon sequestration and a sink where carbon is bound within living plant biomass.
Sediment trapping, a depositional site for both water and airbone sediments, which reduces
turbidity of coastal waters.

AGROFORESTRY / ENVIRONMENTAL
PRACTICES

Mulch/
organic matter
Soil
stabilization
Fence posts

Mulch for small mangrove crabs

The crabs take leaves into underground burrows and
chambers (mulch) which colonyzed by bacteria and
consumed by other fauna to release nutrients.

Stilt mangrove stabilize soil by overlapping prop roots and

promoting sedimentation

Stilt mangrove stems makes good posts

Hard wood and resistant to insect borers

Windbreaks

Rhizophora forest provide windbreakalong coastal

margins.
As a place to seek sanctuary during typhoons and
cyclons.

Woodlot

Mangroves adjacent to peoples home throughout

Pacific (informal)
Stilt mangroove wood use for construction, cooking
fuel, charcoal

Native animal
/ birdfood

Numerous insects, crabs, and , mollusks graze on green

leaves.
Sesarmid crabs consume a large quantity of fallen
leaves propagules. Support aquatic foodchain

Wildlife
habitat

Stilt mangrove serve as habitat for terestrial

and arboreal wildlife
Provide shelter and food

Bee forage

Rhizophora species have no nectar

But produce pollen and distributed by wind

Fish/marine
food chain

Mangrove play vital role.

Nutrients feed directly and indirectly

Coastal
protection

Ornamental

Protection of coastlines, fishponds,

and other coastal infrastructure.
Stilt mangrove planted and there are
laws for protecting.

No significant trade is known.

Small number of plants are sold to
tourists. Example: bonsai forest
garden

USES AND PRODUCTS

 The most widespread use of stilt mangroves is for wood for a range of purposes from cooking

fuel to construction of homes and canoe parts. Other uses of the stlit mangroves include tannin
and dyes.

No.
1.

Products
Staple food

Uses
-Leaves and hypocotyls are edible but not widely used for food.

2.

Medicinal

3.

Timber

4.

Fuelwood

5.
6.

Canoe / boat / raft

making
Tannin / dye

-Mangrove bark has been used to treat angina, boils and fungal infections.
-Leaves and bark have been used as an antiseptic and to treat diarrhea, dysentery, fever, malaria and
leprosy.
-wood used for structural components (eg : poles, beams, flooring, wall-cladding and rafters of
traditional homes.
-other structures like underground mine supports, fencing, cabinet works, tool handles and boat
anchors.
-the wood is also used for fishing stakes, spears , copra-huskers and chips for pulp productiob.
-wood used for fuelwood
-wood is made into charcoal
-wood used to make canoe parts

7.

Ecotourism

-bark and hypocotyls are used to produce dyes ranging from red-brown to black
-used for preserving cotton ropes and netting
-used to prepare tannin formaldehyde adhesives
-impart a red color to finished leather tanning
-simple boardwalks to provide public access for those wanting to see and learn about the fascinating
environment
-boardwalks protects the mangroves from damage

COMMERCIAL CULTIVATION

COMMERCIAL CULTIVATION
Stilt mangrove timber is harvested for charcoal production in south east asia and is done with various rhizophora
species. By using silvicultural practices, charcoal is produced for rhizophora species especially R.Apiculata.

Spacing
There are specific spacing range for the plantation of mangrove trees about 1.0-1.5m apart to prevent multiple-stemmed or shorter
trees. Spreading trees may be desired for coastal protection instead of timber production which is thinned to spacing 2.5-3.5m.

Management objectives
Controlled growth of mangrove fern (acrostichum speciosum) is needed to promote early growth of stilt mangroves.

Growing in polycultures
Mixed-species plantings are recommended together with large-leaf mangrove, bruguiera gymnorrhiza. It is important to associate
buffer areas to stabilize banks by shoreline upland plants. Suitable upland tree genera include calophyllum, casuarina , hibiscus,
thespesia and barringtonia.

COMMERCIAL CULTIVATION
Estimated yield
The matang mangrove forest reserve in malaysia has been managed for timber production and is reputedly the best
managed mangrove forest in the world. The present management plan for the matang reserve is a 30-year old
rotation period with two thinnings at 15 and 20 years however it has declined in a yield from 299 mt/ha from virgin
stands to the second generation yields of 158 mt/ha. Because the standing biomass did not increase, it was
suggested that a rotation of 25 years be used instead of the previous recommendation of 30 years.

Markets
In south east asia, stilt mangrove wood chips and charcoal may be moved greater distances and volumes than wood
products on smaller islands. Firewood and charcoal are available in local markets in most places compared to stilt
mangrove products.

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