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6/16/15 Housekeeping

- Packet 2/3 ionic and covalent bonding; bond polarity and


electronegativity

Feel like quantum mechanics is going to make your


head explode?

The power of quantum mechanics


is that it gives us a framework to
describe the electronic structure of
elements. (This isnt the only
benefit, but its a start.)
Specifically, we now know how to
apply basic rules of quantum
mechanics to arrive at a more
detailed understanding of how
electrons are distributed within the
atom with respect to the energy
levels and sublevels of the atom.
This is our starting point to
develop a better understanding of
2
chemical bonding.

Ch. 8 Basics of Chemical Bonding

Lewis Structures of Atoms

The Lewis structure of an atom is a


representation that shows the valence
electrons for that atom.
Na with the electron structure 1s22s22p63s1
has 1 valence electron.
Fluorine with the electron structure 1s22s22p5
has 7 valence electrons

The Lewis structure of an atom uses dots to


show the valence electrons of atoms.

Paired
electrons

2s22p1

Unpaired
electron
Symbol of
the element

The number of dots equals the number of s


and p electrons in the atoms outermost shell.
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The Lewis structure of an atom uses dots to


show the valence electrons of atoms.

S
2s 2p
2

The number of dots equals the number of s


and p electrons in the atoms outermost shell.
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Chemical Bonds
Atoms form bonds in order to achieve a stable octet of
valence electrons.
They can do this one of two ways
- transferring (i.e. - gaining or losing) electrons; or
- sharing electrons
- Transfer of electrons results in formation of ionic bonds
- Sharing of electrons results in formation of covalent
bonds
9

The Ionic Bond


Transfer of Electrons From
One Atom to Another
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After sodium loses its 3s electron, it has attained the same electronic
structure as neon.

11

After chlorine gains a 3p electron, it has attained the same electronic


structure as argon.

12

Formation of NaCl

13

A sodium
ion
(Na+)
and
a
chloride
ion
(Cl
) are formed.
The 3s electron of sodium transfers to the 3p orbital of chlorine.

The force holding Na+ and Cl- together is an ionic bond.

Lewis representation of sodium chloride formation.


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The Covalent Bond:


Sharing Electrons

15

A covalent bond consists of a pair of


electrons shared between two atoms.
In contrast, recall that an ionic bond is the
electrostatic attraction that results when one
or more electrons is transferred from a donor
(e.g. metal) to an acceptor (e.g. nonmetal).
In the millions of chemical compounds that
exist, the covalent bond is the
predominant chemical bond.

Substances which covalently bond exist


as molecules.

Carbon dioxide bonds covalently. It


exists as individually bonded
covalent molecules containing one
carbon and two oxygen atoms.

11.7

17

The term molecule is not used when


referring to ionic substances.
Sodium chloride bonds ionically.
It consists of a large aggregate of
positive and negative ions. No
molecules of NaCl exist.

11.7

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Covalent bonding in the hydrogen molecule


*Covalent bonding occurs through orbital overlap*
Two 1s orbitals from each of
two hydrogen atoms overlap.

Each 1s orbital contains 1


electron.

11.8

*The goal is to achieve a full outer


shell configuration*
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Covalent bonding in the hydrogen molecule


*Covalent bonding occurs through orbital overlap*
*The goal is to achieve a full
outer shell configuration*

The orbital of the


electrons includes
both hydrogen
nuclei.

The most likely


region to find the two
electrons is between
the two nuclei.
11.8

20

Covalent bonding in the hydrogen molecule


*Covalent bonding occurs through orbital overlap*
*The goal is to achieve a full
outer shell configuration*

The two nuclei are


shielded from each
other by the electron
pair. This allows the
two nuclei to draw
close together.
11.8

*Both hydrogen
atoms now have a
full outer shell.*
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Covalent bonding in the chlorine molecule


Two 3p orbitals from each of
two chlorine atoms overlap.

11.9

Each unpaired 3p orbital on


each chlorine atom contains
1 electron.

22

Covalent bonding in the chlorine molecule


The orbital of the electrons
includes both chlorine nuclei.

11.9

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Covalent bonding in the chlorine molecule

The two nuclei are shielded from each other by the electron pair. This
allows the two nuclei to draw close together.
11.9

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Covalent bonding in the chlorine molecule

The most likely region to find the two electrons is between the two nuclei.
11.9

25

Covalent bonding in the chlorine molecule

Each chlorine now has 8


electrons in its outermost
energy level.
11.9

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Covalent bonding with equal sharing of electrons


occurs in diatomic molecules formed from one
element.

hydrogen

chlorine

iodine

nitrogen

A dash may replace a pair of dots.

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A short aside
OK, weve just said that covalent bonds result when orbitals
overlap. Another way of saying this is would be to say the the
orbital wavefunctions are superposing; that is, theyre combining
to form a new orbital wavefunction.
According to the Copenhagen interpretation of quantum
mechanics, such a superposition of states (like the combination of
atomic orbitals to form molecular orbitals) can only become
definite upon observation.
In other words, one implication of the Copenhagen interpretation
is that the act of observation (say, making a measurement) can
influence the outcome. (No fair! You made an observation. You
changed the outcome! Professor Farnsworth)

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So @#$%! what? What does this have to do


with anything?
Fair enough. In the subatomic world, this is all fair and good.
But what about the macroscopic world that we live in? Are we just
superpositions of various states waiting to be observed and made real?
And wouldnt probability suggest that at any given moment, our state
would change from one observer to the next?
Enter Schrdingers cat

(No cats were harmed during the preparation of this


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slide.)

Schrdingers Cat explained in 60 seconds


bit.ly/sQM1Qu

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One more
Futurama explains
Schrdingers cat (with
a bit of Tron thrown in)
http://bit.ly/tWPRrq

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Schrodingers Kitty Litter if you dont observe it,


you dont have to change it!
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Schrodingers cat versus Pavlovs dog

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And last, but not least life with Bucky

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Electronegativity

35

Electronegativity
measures of the pull an atom has on bonding
electrons
increases across period (left to right) and
decreases down group (top to bottom)
fluorine is the most electronegative element
francium is the least electronegative element

the larger the difference in electronegativity,


the more polar the bond
electrons shared unequally
36

:
H :Cl

The shared electron pair


is closer to chlorine than
to hydrogen.

Shared electron pair.


37

Partial positive charge


on hydrogen.

:
H :Cl

Partial negative charge


on chlorine.
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:
H :Cl

Chlorine has a greater attraction for the


shared electron pair than hydrogen.
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:
H :Cl

The attractive force that an atom of an element


has for shared electrons in a molecule or a
polyatomic ion is known as its electronegativity.
40

Electronegativity Scale

Do you see any parallels between electronegativity trends and


ionization energy trends?

41

Ionization energy
decreases

Ionization energy trends


Ionization energy
increases

42

Choose the Atom with the Largest


Electronegativity
1) Li or F
2) O vs Se
3) Cl vs Pb

Solutions on slides 46-48


43

Bond Polarity
covalent bonding between unlike atoms results in unequal
sharing of the electrons
one atom pulls the electrons in the bond closer to its side
one end of the bond has larger electron density than the
other
the result is a polar covalent bond
bond polarity
the end with the larger electron density gets a partial
negative charge
the end that is electron deficient gets a partial positive
charge
44

Electronegativity and Bond Polarity


If difference in electronegativity between bonded atoms is
0, the bond is pure covalent
equal sharing

If difference in electronegativity between bonded atoms is


0.1 to 0.4, the bond is nonpolar covalent
If difference in electronegativity between bonded atoms
0.5 to 1.9, the bond is polar covalent
If difference in electronegativity between bonded atoms
larger than or equal to 2.0, the bond is ionic
4%
0

0.4

Percent Ionic Character


51%
2.0
Electronegativity Difference

100%
4.0
45

Bond Polarity

ENCl = 3.0
3.0 - 3.0 = 0
Pure Covalent

ENCl = 3.0
ENH = 2.1
3.0 2.1 = 0.9
Polar Covalent

ENCl = 3.0
ENNa = 1.0
3.0 0.9 = 2.1
Ionic

46

Example - Determine whether an N-O bond


is ionic, covalent, or polar covalent.
Determine the electronegativity of each element
N = 3.0; O = 3.5

47

Relating Bond Type to


Electronegativity Difference.

11.11

48

Solutions to exercises

49

electronegativity decreases

Choose the Atom with the Largest Electronegativity:


Li vs F
*F further to the right*

electronegativity increases

50

electronegativity decreases

Choose the Atom with the Largest Electronegativity:


O vs Se
*O further up*

electronegativity increases

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electronegativity decreases

Choose the Atom with the Largest Electronegativity:


Cl vs Pb
*Cl further to the right and further up*

electronegativity increases

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Example - Determine whether an N-O bond


is ionic, covalent, or polar covalent.
Determine the electronegativity of each element
N = 3.0; O = 3.5
Subtract the electronegativities, large minus small
(3.5) - (3.0) = 0.5
If the difference is 2.0 or larger, then the bond is ionic;
otherwise its covalent
difference (0.5) is less than 2.0, therefore covalent
If the difference is 0.5 to 1.9, then the bond is polar
covalent; otherwise its covalent
difference (0.5) is 0.5 to 1.9, therefore polar covalent
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