Characteristics of traffic elements

The important traffic elements are

I. Vehicles
II. Drivers and users
III. Roads
IV. Control mechanisms
V. Terminal or parking facilities
(I)

Vehicles Characteristics: the vehicle characteristics which are

important to a transportation engineer are: Size, weight and axle
configuration, power-to-weight ratio, turning radius, turning path and
pollution creation
Size of vehicle is important for transportation engineers.
e.g., design of parking facilities, height of vehicle is important while
placing signs and designing overpasses and underpasses.
Weight of vehicles, especially heavy vehicles, is important in terms of
design of both flexible and rigid pavements.

Since the weight of the vehicle is transferred to the pavement layer through
the axles, the wheel and axle configuration of vehicles also plays an
important role in the design of pavements.
The power-to -weight ratio of a vehicle is a parameter which characterizes
the ease with which a vehicle can move. Motorized vehicles like
automobiles, motor bikes, etc. have high power-to-weight ratios and
hence have good operating characteristics. Heavy vehicles, on the other
hand, though motorized have poorer power- to weight ratios. Therefore,
the length for which a positive gradient can be maintained on a road is
often limited by its effects on the operation of heavy vehicles.
Every vehicle has a minimum turning radius which is the radius of the circle
that will be traced out by the front wheels if the vehicle moved with its
steering turned to the maximum extent possible. A big vehicle like a bus
has much larger turning radius than a car.
Since only the front wheels turn and (i) the rear wheels are fixed, and (ii)
the vehicles body extends beyond tyres, different points of the vehicle
trace out different paths as shown in figure. Therefore, the effective width
of the vehicle on a turn increases. This is important while designing
intersections and sharp horizontal curves.

Vehicles operating on fossil fuel emits pollutants in to the atmosphere

(Unburned HC, NOx, CO, CO2, particulates).
The rate of release of these pollutants is affected by the operating speed,
frequent acceleration/deceleration, type and age of vehicle, air
temperature, etc. A traffic engineer can aid in the process of reducing
pollutant emissions by designing roads (especially ones with frequent
signalized intersections) where drivers can maintain a reasonable
cruising speed and do not have to accelerate and decelerate frequently.
e.g., Signals could be coordinated such that vehicles in different movements
do not have to stop at all the signals. Driver education and compliance
with traffic regulations (like stopping engines at red lights) also aid in
reducing pollutant emissions.
Moving vehicles also transmit noise, caused by engine functions, action of
tyres on roads, aerodynamics of moving vehicles, horns, the squeals of
brakes, etc. to the surrounding area. Noise emission is also dependent
on age and type of vehicle, type of engine, driving pattern etc. Traffic
engineers, often have to mitigate the effect of noise on habitations by
building noise barriers along heavily travelled roads.
Design vehicle: For the purpose of design, an engineer needs to choose a
type of vehicle based on the characteristics of which the road is done.

II Drivers and users (passengers)

Perception-Reaction process: Human beings react in different situations
by first perceiving the scenario, then inferring a suitable course of action,
and finally implementing that action. The entire process is referred to as
the perception-reaction process. The time required to complete this
process is referred as the perception-reaction time. As per IRC,
perception-reaction time for braking is 2.5 s.
Psychological Characteristics
Value of Time: Human beings value time and the way that time is spent. This
value for time has implications when designing public transport systems
(specifically routes and schedules) and various other traffic facilities like
signalized intersections.
e.g., less number of people will use a route which has a longer travel time
compared to a route which has a shorter travel time; yet on the other
hand the longer route may be preferred if the journey on this rout is a lot
more comfortable (either because the road is less congested or because
the buses running on the route are less crowded).

Safety Considerations: Safety requirements play a major role in traffic

engineering.
e.g., a longer distance between vehicles is required to be maintained while
going at higher speeds ( have an effect of density of traffic flow)
The every part of road element need to be designed for various kinds of
sight distances.
Comfort of drivers: Among the common causes of discomfort to drivers,
some are (i) excessive deceleration rate, (ii) excessive jerk, and (iii)
glare.
The maximum value of the comfortable deceleration rate is around 3 m/s 2,
and it obviously varies from person to person. The designer must therefore
be aware of the comfortable deceleration rates preferred by drivers.
High jerk, generally greater than 0.7 m/s3 , causes considerable discomfort
to drivers. The level of discomfort caused by jerk has a direct bearing on
the geometric design of curves.

Glare is defined as an intense, blinding light. It causes extreme discomfort to

the driver as the driver is effectively blinded for a very small period of time,
posing a big safety hazard.
The problem, in the context of design of traffic engineering, can occur from
bright and ill-placed street lights or sign board lights. But mostly it occurs
from high beam of oncoming vehicle.
The problem of glare has direct bearings on the design of street lighting and
street sign lighting. Sometimes, median barriers have to be constructed on
high speed two-way roads to eliminate the problem by glare.
Vision: The aspects of human vision which are important for a traffic
engineer are (i) visual acuity, (ii) field of vision, and (iii) colour perception.
Visual acuity: refers to how well a person can see. Normal vision is defined
as the ability of a person to recognize a letter (or an object) of
approximately 8.5 mm size from a distance of 6 m. A person with a normal
vision is said to have 6/6 vision. What is meant by 6/9 vision?
The knowledge of visual acuity of drivers is necessary while designing road
signs.

Field of vision: Visual acuity reduces with the angle of vision. Persons can
see most clearly within a 3 cone. Clarity of vision is reasonable within a
10 cone. Beyond 10 and up to 160 cone, vision is peripheral.
Information on field of vision is important in the placement of road signs.
Colour perception: Light colours on dark backgrounds or dark colours on
light backgrounds are most easily discernible by the human eye.
Therefore while designing traffic signs and signals, various colour
combinations to be chosen for easy visibility.
Design driver: A driver, albeit fictitious, who has the characteristics chosen
by the designer is referred to as the design driver. In general, a design
driver is assumed to have a perception-reaction time of 2.5 seconds,
comfortable deceleration rate of 3 m/s2, allowable jerk of about 0.7 m/s3,
a 6/7.5 visual acuity, and a critical gap value between 4 and 7.5 s
(depending on the complexity of the manoeuvre and the number and
speed of opposing streams).

III

Road Characteristics: Various road characteristics affect

the flow of traffic. The most important among them are (i) width, (ii)
presence or absence of shoulders, (iii) surface conditions, (iv) slopes,
and (v) curves

IV

Control Mechanisms: Any traffic system has controls which are

either static or dynamic. Static controls broadly comprise: (i) rules of

driving, (ii) road signs such as STOP, NO U TURN, etc., (iii) raised
islands, and (iv) road markings like dashed or solid lines dividing lanes
etc.
Dynamic controls are the signals at signalized intersections which
determine the right-of-way for the different movements at an intersection
at any given time.
Properly designed controls improve the efficiency of flow while poorly
designed control mechanisms have the opposite effect.
V Terminal facilities: Include home garages, on-street parking areas, and
off-street parking lots. To a traffic engineer, the design of on-street
parking facilities and off-street parking lots are of interest. In general, onstreet parking does not require additional infrastructure, but has
considerable impact on the flow of traffic on the road.