HONORS GENERAL

CHEMISTRY
Gen Chem 1
Braxton McKinney

ATOMS AND MOLECULES

Atoms are the submicroscopic particles that constitute the
fundamental building blocks of ordinary matter.
Free atoms are rare in nature, they bind together to form
molecules.
Chemistry is the science that seeks to understand the behavior of
matter by studying the behavior of atoms and molecules.
Small differences in atoms and molecules can result in large
differences in the substances that they compose.

SCIENTIFIC APPROACH TO
KNOWLEDGE
The scientific method is a process for understanding nature by
observing nature and its behavior, and conducting experiments to
test our ideas.
Key parts of the scientific method include observation,
formulation of a hypothesis, experimentation, and formulation
of laws and theories.
Observations
AKA your data
Descriptions of the characteristics or behavior of nature.
Observations often lead scientists to formulate a hypothesis.

SCIENTIFIC APPROACH TO
KNOWLEDGE (CONTINUED)
Hypothesis
Tentative interpretation or explanation of observations.
A good hypothesis is falsifiable (be able to be proven wrong).

Scientific Law
A brief statement that summarizes past observations and predicts future ones.
Law of Conservation of mass

Unlike civil or governmental laws, you cannot choose to violate a scientific law.

Theory
One or more well established hypothesis is the basis for a theory.
Not accepted as 100% true, this is when something is believed to be true but has not been
proven by multiple scientists.
Daltons Atomic Theory
All matter is made of atoms, and atoms are indestructible and indivisible.

QUIZ QUESTION
Give a statement that explains the difference between a law and a
theory.
A law summarizes a series of related observations; a theory gives
the underlying reasons for them.

CLASSIFICATION OF MATTER
Matter is anything that occupies space and has mass.
We classify matter according to its state (Physical Form) and by its
composition (components that make it up).

STATES OF MATTER
Solids

Very tightly packed atoms.

Atoms vibrate, but do not move around or pass each other.
Has its own rigid shape.
Fixed locations.
Fixed volume.

Types of Solids
Crystalline Solids
Molecules are in a pattern of long range and repeating order.
Table salt and diamond.

Amorphous
Atoms do not have a long range order
Glass and Plastic

STATES OF MATTER (CONTINUED)

Liquid
Atoms or molecules are packed closely similar to solid matter, but are
free to move relative to each other.
Fixed Volume but not a fixed shape.
Assumes shape of its container.

STATES OF MATTER (CONTINUED)

Gas
Atoms have a lot of space between them.
They are free to move relative to each other.
These qualities make gases compressible.

CLASSIFICATION OF MATTER BY
COMPONENTS
Matter can be categorized its composition: elements, compounds,
and mixtures.
Division I is between a pure substance and a mixture
Pure Substance is made up of only one type of atom. (Gold, Silver,
Sodium)
Two types of Pure Substances
Elements
Basic building block of matter
Composed of a single type of atom
Compounds (Cannot be broken down (decomposed) into simpler substances)
Substance composed of two or more elements in fixed definite propotions.

A mixture is a substance composed of two or more components in

proportions that can vary from sample to sample. (Kool-Aid, Gasoline,
Hot Chocolate)

CLASSIFICATION OF MATTER BY
COMPONENTS (CONTINUED)
Mixtures
Can be categorized into two types:
Heterogeneous
Homogeneous
Depends upon how uniform the substances are within the mix.

Heterogeneous Mixture
Is one in which the composition varies from one region of the mixture to
another.
(Salt and Sand Mixture)
Made of multiple substances whose presence can be seen.

Homogeneous Mixture
Made of multiple substances, but appears to be one substance.
All portions of the sample have the same composition and properties.

QUIZ QUESTION
Which of the following is a homogenous mixture?
A) Pure Water
B) Gasoline
C) Jar of Jelly Beans
D) Soil
E) Copper Metal

SEPARATING MIXTURES
Mixtures are separable because the different components have different
physical or chemical properties.
A Mixture of sand and water can be separated by decantingCarefully
pouring off the water into another container.
A homogeneous mixture of liquids can usually be separated by distillation
A process in which the mixture is heated to boil (evaporate) off the more
volatile (easily vaporizable) liquid. The volatile liquid is then condensed in a
condenser and collected in a separate flask.
A mixture of an insoluble solid and liquid can be separated by filtrationA
process in which the mixture is poured through a filter paper in a funnel.
Chromatography: Mixture carried by a liquid or gas is separated into
components as a result of differential distribution of the solutes as they
flow around or over a stationary liquid or solid phase.

PHYSICAL AND CHEMICAL CHANGES

Physical
Change

Changes state or appearance, but not the composition.

Water boils, goes from a liquid to a gas.

Chemical Change
Changes the composition of matter.
Atoms rearrange, transforming the original substances into different substances.
Rusting of iron
Dry Ice sublimating is a physical change
(s)

(g)

Sugar Dissolving is a physical change

Propane Gas Burning is a chemical change
(g) + (g)

(g) + O (g)

PHYSICAL AND CHEMICAL

PROPERTIES
A Physical Property is a property that a substance displays
without changing its composition. (Smell, taste, color, texture,
melting point, boiling point, density, etc.)
A Chemical Property is a property displays only by changing its
composition via a chemical change. (Flamability, corrosiveness,
acidity, and toxicity, etc.)

QUIZ QUESTION
Which of the following are examples of chemical change?
A) Pulverizing (crushing) rock salt
B) Burning Wood
C) Dissolving sugar in water
D) Melting a popsicle on a warm summer day
E) Ammonia and bleach producing gas when mixed

ENERGY
Energy: The capacity to do work.
Work: The action of a force through a distance.
Kinetic Energy: Energy associated with the motion of an object.
Potential Energy: Energy associated with the position or
composition of an object
Thermal Energy: Energy associated with the temperature of an
object.
Thermal energy is a type of kinetic energy because as the temperature
rises individual atoms or molecules pick up speed.

Energy is not created nor destroyed. (Law of conservation of

energy)
Systems with high potential energy tend to change in a direction

UNITS OF MEASUREMENT
Scientists use the International System of Units (SI) based off
the metric system.
Scientific Observations:
Qualitative:
The sky is blue.
Fire is hot.

Quantitative:
Measurements consist of two parts:
Number
Scale (Units)

THE STANDARD UNITS

Length = Meter = m
Mass = Kilogram = kg
Time = Second = s
Temp. =

Kelvin = K

Amount of substance = Mole = mol

Electric Current = Ampere = A
Luminous Intensity = Candela = cd

UNITS OF MEASUREMENTS
Meter
A meter is slightly longer than a yard.
1 yard is 36 inches, 1 meter is 39.37 inches.

Kilogram
Mass is a measure of the quantity of matter within it.
1 kg = 2.205 pounds
1 g = 1/1000 kg
The weight of an object is the gravitational pull on the matter.

Second
1 s is defined as the period of time it takes for a specific number of radiation
events of a specific transition of cesium-133

UNITS OF MEASUREMENT
(CONTINUED)
Kelvin
A measure of the average amount of kinetic energy of the atoms or
molecules that compose the matter.
Temperature also determines the direction of thermal energy transfer
aka heat.
Kelvin Scale: 0 K = -273 Celsius or -459 Fahrenheit, it is impossible to
get colder because molecular motion virtually stops.
C=
K = C +273.15

QUIZ QUESTION
At what temperature does C = F
A) -100
B) -40
C) 0
D) 25
E) 32

PREFIX MULTIPLIERS
Exa- = E = 1,000,000,000,000,000,000 =

Peta- = P = 1,000,000,000,000,000 =
Tera- = T = 1,000,000,000,000 =
Giga- = G = 1,000,000,000 =
Mega- = M = 1,000,000 =
Kilo- = k = 1,000 =
Deci- = d = 0.1 =
Centi- = c = 0.01 =
Mili- = m = 0.001 =
Micro = = 0.000001 =
Nano- = n = 0.000000001 =
Pico- = p = 0.000000000001 =
Fento- = f = 0.000000000000001 =
Atto- = a = 0.000000000000000001 =

QUIZ QUESTION
If a km is shorter than a mile, are you going faster traveling 75 km/h
or 75 mph?
A) 75 km/h
B) 75 mph

DERIVED UNITS: VOLUME AND

DENSITY
Volume

is a measure of space, it has units of length cubed () or

liters (L)
Density is a ratio of a substances mass to volume, it has units of
mass/volume.

UNCERTAINTY IN MEASUREMENT
Every measurement has some degree of uncertainty.
A digit that must be estimated is uncertain.

Precision and Accuracy

Precision: Refers to how close a series of measurements are to one
another or how reproducible they are.
Must be consistent with one another

Accuracy: Refers to how close the measured value is to the actual

value.
Must be close to the actual value.

SIGNIFICANT FIGURES
The greater number of Significant figures, the greater the certainty
of the measurement.
Significant Figure Rules:
1. All nonzero digits are significant.

28.03

2. Interior zeros (zeros between two nonzero digits, are significant

7.0301
3. Leading zeros (zeros to the left of 1st nonzero digit) not
significant. 0.0032

SIGNIFICANT FIGURES
4.
Trailing Zeros (Zeros at the end of a number) are categorized as below.
A) Trailing zeros after a decimal point are always significant 45.000
B) Trailing zeros before a decimal point and after a nonzero number are
always significant. 2500.55
C) Trailing zeros before an implied decimal point are ambiguous and
should be avoided by using scientific notation.
1.2 X
2 Sig Fig
1.20X
3 Sig Fig
1.200X 4 Sig Fig

Exact Numbers
Exact numbers have infinite significant figures
Defined quantities
1 in = 2.54 cm exactly
9 Pencils exactly

1200 Ambiguous

SIGNIFICANT FIGURES (CONTINUED)

Multiplication and Division Rule:
In multiplication or division, the result carries the same number of
significant figures as the factor with the fewest significant figures.

Addition and Subtraction Rule:

In addition or subtraction the result carries the same number of
decimal places as the quantity with the fewest decimal places.

SAMPLE PROBLEM 1
A golfer putted a golf ball 6.8 ft across a green. How many inches
does this represent?
Answer: 82 inches

SAMPLE PROBLEM 2
An
Iron sample has a mass of 4.50 lb. What is the mass of this
sample in g?
2.04X

SAMPLE PROBLEM 3
A
certain mineral has a mass of 17.8 g and a volume of 2.35 .
What is the density of this mineral?
Density =
Density =
Density = 7.57

SAMPLE PROBLEM 4
What

is the mass of a 49.6 ml sample of a liquid which has a

density of 0.85 g/ml?
Density =

Mass = Density X Volume

Mass = X 49.6
Mass = 42 g

IMAGING AND MOVING INDIVIDUAL

ATOMS
Scanning tunneling microscopy (STM) is a technique that can
image, and move individual atoms and molecules.
An atom is the smallest identifiable unit of an element.
There are about
91 different, naturally occurring elements
Over 20 synthetic elements that are not found in nature.

EARLY IDEAS ABOUT THE BUILDING

BLOCKS OF MATTER
Leucippus (fifth century B.C.) and his student Democritus (460-370 B.C.)
were the first to propose that matter was composed of small, indestructible
particles.
Democritus wrote, Nothing exists except atoms and empty space; everything else
is opinion.

They proposed that many different kinds of atoms existed, each different in
shape and size, and that they moved randomly though empty space.
Plato and Aristotle did not embrace the atomic ideas of Leucippus and
Democritus.
They said:
Matter has no smallest parts.

EARLY IDEAS ABOUT THE BUILDING

BLOCKS OF MATTER (CONTINUED)
Robert Boyle (1627-1691) was the first chemist
Performed quantitative experiments on relationship of pressure and volume of air.
Substance = element if it can not be broken down into simpler substances.

Later, the scientific approach became the established way to learn about the physical world.
An English chemist, John Dalton (1766-1844) offered convincing evidence that supported the
early atomic ideas of Leucippus and Democritus
The theory that all matter is composed of atoms grew out of observations and laws.
The three most important laws that led to the development and acceptance of the atomic
theory were:
Law of conservation of Mass
Law of definite proportions
Law of multiple Proportions

THE LAW OF CONSERVATION OF

MASS
Antoinie

Lavoisier formulated the law of conservation of mass

which states that during a chemical reaction, matter is not created
nor destroyed.
2NaOH +

2NaCl +

If an element exists on one side of the chemical equation, it must exist on the
other.

LAW OF DEFINITE PROPORTIONS

Joseph Proust in 1797
Law of definite proportions
All samples of a given compound, regardless of their source or how
they were prepared have the same proportions of their constituting
elements.

Sample Problem
The decomposition of 18.0 g of water results in 16.0 g of oxygen and
2.0 g of hydrogen, or an oxygen-to-hydrogen mass ratio of the
following;
Mass ratio =

= 8.0 or 8:1

LAW OF MULTIPLE PROPORTIONS

John Dalton in 1804
When two elements (call them A and B) form two different
coumpounds, the masses of element B that combine with 1 g of
element A can be expressed as a ratio of small whole numbers.
An atom of A combines with either one, two, three, or more atoms of B
(, , , etc)
Carbon monoxide and carbon dioxide are two compounds composed of
the same two elements: Carbon and Oxygen

JOHN DALTON AND THE ATOMIC

THEORY
Daltons atomic theory explained the laws as follows:
1) Each element is composed of tiny, indestructible particles called atoms.
2) All atoms of a given element have the same mass and other properties that
distinguish them from the atoms of other elements.
3) Atoms combine in simple, whole-number ratios to form compounds.
4) Atoms of one element cannot change into atoms of another element. In a chemical
reaction, atoms only change the way they are bound together.
)Which of the following statements regarding Daltons atomic theory are still believed
to be true?
A) Elements are made of tiny particles called atoms.
B) All atoms of a given element are identical.
C) A given compound always has the same relative numbers and types of atoms.
D) Atoms are indestructible.

JOHN DALTON AND THE ATOMIC

THEORY (CONTINUED)
Atomic masses
Dalton was first to consider atomic mass.
Used atomic masses to arrange the first table.
He wasnt always right, he thought the formula for water was OH. He thought
8 g + 1 g Water. Meaning that Oxygen has a mass of 8 g and
as we know now that is false.

PERIOD OF DISBELIEF
Scientists did not trust conclusions of others.
Eventually enough curious chemists thought Dalton and Avogadro
made sense.

THE DISCOVERY OF THE ELECTRON

Between
1856 and 1940, J.J. Thomson conducted Cathode Ray Experiments.

Thomson constructed a partially evacuated glass tube called a cathode ray tube.
He found that beams of particles, called cathode rays, traveled from the
negatively charged electrode (cathode) to a positively charged one (anode).
Thomson found that the particles that compose the cathode ray have following
properties:
They travel in straight lines.
They are independent of the composition of the material from which they originate (the
cathode).
They carry a negative electrical charge.
J.J. Thomson measure the charge-to-mass ratio of the cathode ray particles by
deflecting them using electric and magnetic fields.
The value he measured was -1.76 X coulombs per gram.

THE DISCOVERY OF THE ELECTRON

(CONTINUED)
J.J. Thomson had discovered the electron, a negatively charge, lowmass particle present within all atoms.
He also concluded that the atom must also contain positive
particles that exactly balance the negative charge carried by the
particles that we now call electrons.
He came up with the plum pudding model
Performed experiments involving charged oil drops.

MILLIKANS OIL DROP EXPERIMENT

By
measuring the strength of the electric field required to halt the
free fall of the drops, and by figuring out the masses of the drops
themselves ( determined their radii and density), Millikan
calculated the charge of each drop.
The measured charge on any drop was always a whole-number
multiple of
-1.96 X , the fundamental charge of a single
electron.

RUTHERFORDS GOLD FOIL

EXPERIMENT

Rutherford shot particles (+2 charge) at a piece of gold foil.

Most particles passed through.
Some scattered.
Some are reflected.

He concluded that matter must not be

as uniform as it appears. It must
contain large regions of empty space
dotted with small regions of very
dense matter.

RUTHERFORDS GOLD FOIL

EXPERIMENT (CONTINUED)
Proposed the nuclear atom.
Atom has a dense center of positive charge called the
nucleus.
Electrons travel around the nucleus at a relatively large
distance.
The nucleus is:
Small compared with the overall size of the atom (a grain of sand in Rice-Eccles
Stadium).
Extremely dense; accounts for almost all of the atoms mass.
Building on this idea, he proposed the nuclear theory of the atom, with three basic parts:
1) Most of the atoms mass and all of its positive charge are contained in a small core called
the Nucleus.
2) Most of the volume of the atom is empty space, throughout which tiny, negatively
charged electrons are dispersed.
3) There are as many negatively charged electrons outside the nucleus as they are

THE NEUTRONS
Although Rutherfords model was highly successful, scientists
realized that it was incomplete.
Later work by Rutherford and his student James Chadwick (18911974), demonstrated that the previously unaccounted for mass
was due to neutrons, neutral particles within the nucleus.
The mass of a neutron is similar to that of a proton.
However, a neutron has no electrical charge.
The helium atom is four times as massive as the hydrogen atom
because it contains two protons and two neutrons.
Hydrogen only contains one proton and no neutrons.

SUBATOMIC PARTICLES
All atoms are composed of the same subatomic particles:
Protons
Neutrons
Electrons

Protons and neutrons have nearly identical masses:

The mass of the proton is 1.67262 X kg.
The mass of the neutron is 1.67493 X kg.
The mass of the electron is 0.00091 X kg.

ELEMENTS: DEFINED BY THEIR

NUMBERS OF PROTONS
The most important number to the identity of an atom is the
number of protons in its nucleus.
The number of protons in an atoms nucleus is its atomic number
and is given the symbol Z.

PERIODIC TABLE
Each element is identified by a unique atomic number and with a
unique Chemical Symbol.
The chemical symbol is either a one or two letter abbreviation
listed directly below its atomic number on the periodic table.

ISOTOPES: VARIED NUMBER OF

NEUTRONS
All atoms of a given element have the same number of protons;
however, they do not necessarily have the same number of
neutrons.
Neon, always has 10 protons, but may contain 10, 11, or 12 neutrons.
All three exist and each has a slightly different mass.

Atoms with the same number of protons but a different number of

neutrons are called Isotopes.
The relative amount of each different isotope in a naturally
occurring sample of a given element is roughly constant.
These percentages are called the Natural abundance of the
isotopes.
Advances in mass spectrometry have allowed accurate measurements
that reveal small but significant variations in the natural abundance of

ISOTOPES: VARIED NUMBER OF

NEUTRONS (CONTINUED)
The

sum of the number of neutrons and protons in an atom is its

mass number and is represented by the symbol A
A = number of protons (p) + number of neutrons (n)
Mass
Number
Atomic
Number

Chemical
Symbol

A second common notation for

isotopes is the chemical symbol
followed by a dash and the mass
number of the isotope.
Ne-20
Neon-20
Neon-22

Ne-21
Ne-22
Neon-21

IONS: LOSING AND GAINING

ELECTRONS
The

number of electrons in a neutral atom is equal to the number

of protons in its nucleus (designated by its atomic number Z).
In a chemical change, however, atoms can lose or gain electrons
and become charged particles called ions.
Positively charged ions, such as , are called cations.
Negatively charged ions, such as , are called anions.

FINDING PATTERNS: THE PERIODIC

LAW AND THE PERIODIC TABLE
In 1869, Mendeleev noticed that certain groups of elements had similar properties
recurred in a periodic (exhibit a repeating pattern) patter.
Mendeleev summarized these observations in the periodic law: When the elements
are arranged in order of increasing mass, certain sets of properties recur periodically.
Mendeleev organized the known elements in a table, he arranged the rows so that
elements with similar properties fall in the same vertical columns.
Mendeleevs table predicted the existence of an element called eka-silicon.
In 1886, eka-silicon was discovered by German chemist Clemens Winkler who named it
germanium.

Modern periodic table.

Elements are listed in order of increasing atomic number rather than increasing relative
mass.
It also contains more elements than Mendeleevs original table because more have been
discovered since his time.

CLASSIFICATION OF ELEMENTS
There are three types of elements on the periodic table.
Metals
Nonmetals
Metalloids

METALS
Metals are on the lower left side and middle of the periodic table.

Good conductors of heat and electricity.

Malleability (Bendable)
Ductility (Can be made into wires)
Often Lustrous.
Tend to lose electrons during chemical reactions.

NONMETALS
They are on the upper-right side of the periodic tables.
17 total nonmetals
At room temperature they are:
5 solids (C, P, S, Se, and I)
1 liquid (Br)
11 gases (H, He, N, O, F, Ne, Cl, Ar, Kr, Xe, and Rn)

Tend to be:
Poor conductors of heat and electricity.
Not ductile or malleable
Gain electrons during chemical reactions

METALLOIDS
AKA Semimetals.
They lie along a zigzag diagonal line that divides metals and
nonmetals.
Exhibit mixed properties.
Several are AKA semiconductors because of their intermediate
(and highly temperature-dependent) electrical conductivity.

PERIODIC TABLE
Main group elements: properties tend to be largely predicable based on
their position in the periodic table.
Transition elements or transition metals: properties tend to be less
predictable based simply on their position on the periodic table.
The periodic table is divided into vertical columns and horizontal rows.
Each vertical column is called a group or family.
Each horizontal row is called a period
18 groups and 7 periods
The groups are numbered 1-18 (or the A and B grouping)
The main groups are labeled with a number and the letter A (1A-8A or groups 1,
2, and 13-18)
The transition elements are in columns labeled with a number and the letter B
(or groups 3-12)

NOBLE GAS
The elements within a group usually have similar properties.
The group 8A or 18 elements are the noble gases and mostly
unreactive.

ALKALI, ALKALINE EARTH METALS,

AND HALOGENS
Alkali Metals
Group 1A elements are called Alkali metals, and are all reactive metals.
A marble sized piece of sodium explodes violently when dropped into
water.

Alkaline Earth Metals

Group 2A elements are called Alkaline Earth Metals, all of which are
fairly reactive but not as reactive as group 1 (alkali metals)

Halogens
Group 7A are very reactive nonmetals.
They are always found in nature as salt

IONS AND THE PERIODIC TABLE

In general, the alkali metals (group 1A) have a tendency to lose
one electron and form 1+ ions.
The alkaline earth metals (group 2A) tend to lose two electrons
and from 2+ ions.
Halogens (Group 7A) tend to gain one electron and from 1- ions.
Oxygen family nonmetals (Group 6A) tend to gain two electrons
and from 2- ions.
For the main-group elements that form cations with a predictable
charge, the charge is equal to the group number.
For main-group elements that form anions with a predictable
charge, the charge is equal to the group number minus eight.

ATOMIC MASS: THE AVERAGE MASS

OF AN ELEMENTS ATOMS
AKA atomic weight or standard atomic weight.
The atomic mass is right below the chemical symbol on the
periodic table.
The atomic mass on the periodic table takes into account the
average mass of the isotopes that compose that element,
weighted according to the natural abundance of each isotope.

THE MOLE
When

we count large numbers of objects, we often use units such

as.
1 dozen = 12
1 gross = 144

The chemists dozen is the mole. A mole is the measure of

material containing 6.02214 X particles:
1 Mole = 6.02214 X particles
This is Avogadros Number.
One mole of anything is 6.02214 X units of that thing.
The value of the mole is equal to the number of atoms in exactly
12 grams of pure C-12

CONVERTING BETWEEN NUMBER OF

MOLES AND NUMBER OF ATOMS
For atoms, use the conversion factor 1 mol = 6.02214 X atoms.
=

CONVERTING BETWEEN MASS AND

NUMBER OF MOLES
To
count atoms by weighing them, we need one other conversion
factor --- the mass of 1 mol of atoms.
The mass of 1 mol of atoms of an element is the molar mass.
An elements molar mass in grams per mole is numerically equal to
the elements atomic mass in atomic mass units (amu).
26.98 g aluminum = 1 mol aluminum = 6.02214 X Al atoms
12.01 g carbon = 1 mol carbon = 6.02214 X C atoms
4.003 g helium = 1 mol helium = 6.02214 X He atoms

CONVERTING BETWEEN MASS AND

MOLES
The

molar mass of any element is the conversion factor between

the mass (in grams) of that element and the amount (in moles) of
that element. For carbon,
12.01 g C = 1 mol C or or

BIG THANKS AND CREDIT GIVEN TO:

Luisa Whittaker-Brooks of the University of Utah
Pearson Education