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Structure of water
Water (H2O) consists of two hydrogen atoms
covalently bonded to one oxygen atom.
Each hydrogen shares a pair of
electrons with the oxygen. The oxygen
has a greater affinity for electrons than
the hydrogens, so it pulls the
electrons closer.
104.5
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Hydrogen bonds
Many of the properties of water are due to its ability to form
hydrogen bonds.
The slight negative charge on the oxygen atom makes it
attract the slightly positive hydrogen atom of another water
molecule.
hydrogen
bond
The numerous hydrogen bonds in water make it a very
stable structure.
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Water as a solvent
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Introducing carbohydrates
Carbohydrates are a group of substances used as both
energy sources and structural materials in organisms.
All carbohydrates contain carbon, hydrogen and oxygen,
with the general formula: Cx(H2O)y.
There are three main groups of carbohydrates:
Glucose
Glucose is an abundant and very important monosaccharide.
It contains six carbon atoms so it is a hexose sugar. Its
general formula is C6H12O6.
Glucose is the major energy source for most cells. It is highly
soluble and is the main form in which carbohydrates are
transported around the body of animals.
The structure of glucose can be represented in different ways:
straight chain
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ring
ring (simplified)
Boardworks Ltd 2008
alpha
glucose
1
3
1
3
beta
glucose
fructose
galactose
Pentoses
Pentose monosaccharides contain five carbon atoms. Like
hexoses, pentoses are long enough to form a ring.
Two important pentose molecules are the structural isomers
ribose and deoxyribose. These are important constituents
of RNA and DNA.
5
5
1
4
3
ribose
4
3
deoxyribose
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What is cellulose?
Cellulose is another polysaccharide and is the main part of
plant cell walls. It is the most abundant organic polymer.
Unlike starch, cellulose is very strong, and prevents cells
from bursting when they take in excess water.
Cellulose consists of long
chains of beta glucose
molecules joined by beta
14 glycosidic bonds.
The glucose chains form
rope-like microfibrils,
which are layered to form
a network.
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What is glycogen?
Animals do not store carbohydrate as starch but as glycogen.
Glycogen has a similar
structure to amylopectin,
containing many alpha 16
glycosidic bonds that produce an
even more branched structure.
Glycogen is stored as small
granules, particularly in
muscles and liver.
Glycogen is less dense and more soluble than starch, and is
broken down more rapidly. This indicates the higher
metabolic requirements of animals compared with plants.
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Glossary
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Multiple-choice quiz
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