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Week 5

Solid Fuels, Nuclear


Energy & Lubrication

Teaching / Learning
Assessment Methods

Course Structure
Wk

Topics

Learning
Outcome
s

Discuss
0
5

Solid Fuels

Details

Wood Composition & Properties


Peat Composition & Properties
Wood Carbonization & Gasification

Describe

Peat Carbonization & Gasification


Essentials of Wood Stoves

0
6

0
7

Solid Fuels

Nuclear
Energy

Explain

Different Types of Coal Based on Stages of Formation, Composition,


Properties

Describe

Coal Liquefaction & Gasification

Discuss

Discuss How Coal can be Classified

Discuss

Decay of Radio Activity

Describe

Nuclear Fission, Nuclear Fusion & Binding Energy

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Game Plan
Week

Course Structure

Deliverables

05

Solid Fuels

Coal, Peat

06

Solid Fuels

Peat, Wood

07

Nuclear Energy

Nuclear

Nuclear Energy

Nuclear,

08

09

Quiz Time Based @ End of


Lecture
15 Questions 15 minutes

Quiz on Solid Fuels

Quiz on Nuclear
Lubrication

Lubrication

Lubrication

Lubrication

Quiz on Lubrication

World Energy Sources:

Source: https://www.worldenergy.org/publications/2016/world-energyresources-2016/

World Energy Sources:


Global Energy supply 2016

Sri Lankan Energy Supply - 2014

40%
42%

3% 8%

Biomass
Major Hydro

8%

Petroleum
New Renewable Energy

Coal

Source: https://www.worldenergy.org/publications/2016/world-energyresources-2016/

Coal: Introduction
Coal has been used in many societies throughout the world for a
very long time. Upon his return from China, Marco Polo (1254
1324) described a black stone that burned like wood.
This material, evidently unfamiliar to him, had been used by the
Chinese perhaps as early as 1000 B.C.E.to smelt metal.
Romans were mining coal in England by 400 C.E., and long before
the arrival of Columbus, Native Americans of the Southwest were
using coal.
In most early societies, the alternative to coal was wood.
Historically, of course, wood has also been an important source of
energy, but there were two important reasons that some early
societies turned to coal.

Coal: Formation
Coal is a readily combustible rock containing more than 50% by
weight or more than 70% by volume of carbonaceous material
including inherent moisture.
Brown and hard coal developed through a process of partial
decomposition under air-deficient conditions of plant matter that had
accumulated on land and in swamps during previous geological
periods.
By continued deposition of sediments and plant debris, the older
sediments gradually sank to greater depths and, with growing
pressure and a resulting dewatering process, become compacted.

Coal: Formation
Under anaerobic conditions, the organic substance undergo
a change in form (metamorphosis) due to pressure and
heat, which is called coalification.
Peat formation and the formation of soft brown coal are the
first steps of the coalification process.
With greater depths, higher pressures and rising
temperatures, coalification proceeds (thermal
metamorphosis), hard brown coal develops from soft brown
coal and, eventually, hard coal is formed.

Coal: Formation

Coal: Formation
The coalification process involves an increase in the fraction of
solid carbon and a decrease in the volatile matter content of the
material.
In the early stages of decomposition, the formation of H 2O, CO2
and N2 predominates; in advanced stages, CH4 is mainly formed.
The increasing pressure pushes the water content down further
and further. The moisture content decreases from about 15%
maximum.
Volatiles diminish from a fraction of 75 to 10%.
As a consequence of the release of CH4 and CO2, the C content
increases from about 50 to more than 90%.

Coal: Classification
Generally, coals are grouped according to particular
properties as defined by their:
Rank - degree of metamorphism
Type - constituent plant materials
Grade - degree of impurities and calorific value

Coal: Classification - Rank:


The classification system used in North America and that is fairly
universal is maintained by the American Society for Testing and Materials
(ASTM) and designated D388.
This approach uses standard methods of measuring and reporting the
calorific value on a moist, mineral-matter-free basis and volatile matter
and fixed carbon on a dry, mineral-matter-free basis to classify coal rank.
It can be seen in this characterization is the fact that the amount of
moisture, yield of ash and total sulfur must be measured to obtain the
correct basis of comparison.
Rank is the most fundamental concept relating both coalification history
and utilization potential of a coal. However, coals of different
composition may be assigned to the same rank value even though their
levels of maturity may differ, based on their Calorific Value.

Coal: Classification - Rank:


Rank in Increasing
order
Coalification Stage
Peat

Moisture

Volatile Matter

As Received
~75%

Dry Ash Free


69 - 63%

Carbon
Content
Dry Ash Free
<60%

Lignite

35 - 55%

63 - 53%

65 - 70%

Sub-bituminous C

30 - 38%

53 - 50%

70 - 72%

Sub-bituminous B

25 - 30%

50 - 46%

72 - 74%

Sub-bituminous A

18 - 25%

46 - 42%

74 - 76%

12 - 18%

46 - 42%

76 - 78%

10 -12%

42 - 38%

78 - 80%

8 - 10%

38 - 31%

80 - 82%

8 - 10%

31 - 22%

82 - 86%

8 - 10%

22 - 14%

86 - 90%

High Volatile Bituminous


C
High Volatile Bituminous
B
High Volatile Bituminous
A
Medium Volatile
Bituminous
Low Volatile

Calorific Value
As received
3,500 kcal/kg
4,000 - 4,200
kcal/kg
4,200 - 4,600
kcal/kg
4,600 - 5,000
kcal/kg
5,000 - 5,500
kcal/kg
5,500 5,900
kcal/kg
5,900 - 6,300
kcal/kg
6,300 - 7,000
kcal/kg
7,000 - 8,000
kcal/kg
8,000 - 8,600
kcal/kg

Oxygen
Content
Dry Ash Free
>23%
23%
20%
18%
16%
12%
10%
8%
4%
3%

dmmf dry mineral matter free basis

Coal: Classification Rank:

Coal: Classification - Type:


Changes in the chemical and physical properties of whole coal
are the summation of changes to the coal constituents.
There are three main groups of materials that constitute coals
and that are used to define coal type.
These material groups identified under an optical microscope
in reflected white light are referred to as:
Vitrinite,
Liptinite
Inertinite

These are composed of individual constituents called macerals.

Coal: Classification - Type:

Coal: Classification - Type:


Maceral Type
(Mineral type)

Description

Additional Information

Vitrinite:
oxygen-rich moderate
Hydrogen moderately
aromatic

The transparent part of


coal that is normally
represented as bands.

Liptinite:
hydrogen-rich highly
aliphatic

Derived from resin bodies,


Produce large quantities of volatile
waxy cuticles and spores
matter.
from plants.

Inertinite:
carbon-rich highly
aromatic

As the name suggests this


group is inert (to the
coking process) and does
not soften or swell on
heating

This material is formed from woody


material This maceral group has the
lowest ash content.

This maceral group comprises


charcoal and products of fungal
breakdown of woody tissue. It
contains low volatile matter and is
responsible for the sooty effect of
coal.

Coal: Classification - Type:

Coal: Classification Grade:


Coal grade is a term used to indicate the value of coal material
as determined by the amount and nature of ash yield and the
sulfur content following the complete oxidation of the organic
fraction.
Calorific value is one of the principal measures of a coal's value
as a fuel and is directly influenced by mineral impurities.
Coal mineralogy is not only important to combustion
characteristics, but also as materials that can be passed on to
secondary products such as metallurgical coke.

Coal: Classification Grade:


Alkalis-containing compounds derived from coal minerals can
contribute to excessive gasification of coke in the blast furnace and
attack of blast furnace refractories, whereas phosphorus and sulfur
from coal minerals can be passed on to the hot metal, thus reducing its
quality for steelmaking.
Mineral matter may occur finely dispersed or in discrete partings in
coal and is generally grouped according to origin. A certain amount of
inorganic matter and trace elements are derived from the original
plants.
However, the majority is put in place either during the initial stage of
coalification (being introduced by wind or water to the peat swamp) or
during the second stage of coalification, after consolidation of the coal
by movement of solutions in cracks, fissures and cavities.

Coal: Classification Grades of NonCoking Coal: India


Grade

Useful Heat Value (UHV)


(Kcal/Kg) UHV= 8900138(A+M)

Corresponding Ash%
+ Moisture % at
(60% RH & 40OC)

Gross Calorific Value GCV (Kcal/


Kg) (at 5% moisture level)

6200 < UHV

A+M < 19.5

6454 < GCV

5600 < UHV < 6200

19.6 to 23.8

6049 < GCV < 6454

4940 < UHV < 5600

23.9 to 28.6

5597 < GCV < 6049

4200 < UHV < 4940

28.7 to 34.0

5089 < GCV < 5597

3360 < UHV < 4200

34.1 to 40.0

4324 < GCV < 5089

2400 < UHV < 3360

40.1 to 47.0

3865 < GCV < 4324

1300 < UHV < 2400

47.1 to 55.0

3113 < GCV < 3865

Coal: Classification Grades of Coking


Coal : India
Grade

Ash Content

Steel Grade - I

Ash 15%

Steel Grade -II

15% < Ash 18%

Washery Grade -I

18% < Ash 21%

Washery Grade -II

21% < Ash 24%

Washery Grade -III

24% < Ash 28%

Washery Grade -IV

28% < Ash 35%

Coal: Composition
As Received (AR or RAW):
includes Total moisture
(Tm)
Air Dried (AD): includes
Inherent moisture (Im)
Dry Basis (DB): excludes
all Moisture
Dry Ash Free (DAF):
excludes all Moisture &
Ash
Dry Mineral Material Free
(DMMF): excludes Volatile

Coal: Elemental composition


Determining the principal elements in coal carbon,
hydrogen, nitrogen, sulfur, and oxygen is referred to as
ultimate analysis.
In this context, the word ultimate derives from an early
usage in analytical chemistry, indicating determination of
elemental components without regard to how they are
arranged in the molecular structure.
It Customarily, only carbon, hydrogen, nitrogen, and sulfur
are determined directly. Oxygen is then calculated from:
O = 100 [C+H+N+S]

Coal: Elemental composition


The Seyler coal band
Most humic coals have carbon
and hydrogen contents within
the region of this band.
LVB - low-volatile bituminous
MVB - medium-volatile
HVB high volatile
SUBBIT subbituminous
Seylers original data base did
not extend to coals having less
than about 75% carbon, so
extension to coals of lower rank
must be based on extrapolation.

Coal: Elemental composition

Relationship of oxygen content and carbon


content for humic coals. Generally oxygen
content decreases as rank increases.

The Mott chart illustrates the


relationship between calorific value
and volatile matter.

Coal: Elemental composition


Most coals contain more oxygen than is found in natural gas or
petroleum.
Incorporating oxygen into an organic molecule reduces the heat of
combustion.
Most of the carbon in coals is aromatic, not aliphatic as it is in natural
gas and petroleum.
Coals do not have a unique molecular structure. This distinguishes
coals from polymers, which have regular, repeating structures based
on a monomer that have been well characterized.
Coal is also distinct from biological macromolecules too, which might
have a very large and complex structure but, once it has been
clarified is then known clearly.

Coal: Elemental
composition - Inorganic

Some of the
Mineral species
found in coals

Coal: Physical Properties Calorific


Value
Natural gas, with H/C of 4.0, has a calorific value of 56
MJ/kg.
Many petroleum products with H/C about 2, have
calorific values of 46 MJ/kg.
Taking an H/C of 0.75 for a typical coal, the
extrapolated calorific value would be about 37 MJ/kg.
Coals having H/C ratios of 0.75 actually have calorific
values of 2832 MJ/kg on an mmmf (moisture-andmineral-matter-free) basis.
Coals of even the best quality seldom exceed 36 MJ/kg.

Coal: Physical Properties - Density


Density is usually measured by
displacement of a fluid.
Because coals are porous, their
apparent density depends on the fluid
used for the measurement, particularly
on the ability of the fluid molecules to
penetrate the pore system.
The apparent density of coals as a
function of carbon content, measured
by displacement of benzene, hexane,
methanol, or water. The densities of
most coals lie within the band.

Coal: Physical Properties - Porosity


The so-called true density is
measured by displacement of
helium.
The name true density derives
from the assumption that helium,
being the smallest atom, should be
able to penetrate even the
smallest of pores, whereas other
fluids might not be able to
penetrate all of the pore system of
the sample.

Coal: Physical Properties Surface


Area
Since surface area controls the extent and rate of
heterogeneous reactions, in many applications knowledge of
total surface area is more important than knowing the porosity.
Surface area measurements are commonly made by gas
adsorption.
The concepts of surface area and porosity measurements have
importance not only in coal reactivity, but also in the fields of
heterogeneous catalysis and the characterization of carbon
products made from fossil and biofuels.
With the highest surface area and highest porosity, lignites are
generally very reactive coals.

Coal: Physical Properties Surface


Area
With the highest surface area and highest porosity, lignites
are generally very reactive coals.
Bituminous coals have lower porosities and total surface
areas than lignites.
Anthracites are slightly more porous than the bituminous
coals.
The aliphatic crosslinks in bituminous coals can exist in
various conformations that may allow for closer filling of
space than can be achieved with the very large aromatic ring
systems (R 10 100) connected by short, rigid crosslinks
characteristic of anthracites.

Coal: Excavation & Processing


Miners at the entrance
to the Blue
Canyon coal mine,
which operated
from 1891 to 1918
in Washington State

Coal: Excavation & Processing


This coal deposit in
northeast Kazakhstan
has seams of coal that
are 560 feet (170 m)
thick it is mined by
bucket wheel
excavators.

Coal: Excavation & Processing


The five steps of the coal production process include:

Exploration & Development


Mining
Processing
Loading & Transportation
Rehabilitation

Coal: Cycle
Coal
Preparation

High
efficiency
Combustion

Coal
Reforming
and
Processing

Handling

Liquefaction

Gasification

Flue Gas
Treatment

Ash
Utilization

Pyrolysis

Coal: Processing - Basic


Crushing : Mined coal can include lumps up to a meter
in size, so crushing to a manageable size is required.
Coal crushing can include a two stage process
dependent on deposit size.
Crush One: Feeder Breaker - Coal is crushed in a feeder
breaker, a chain conveyor under a toothed drum that
breaks the biggest lumps.
Crush Two: Sizer - Coal size is further reduced through a
sizer, where each oversize particles are reduced to less
than 75 millimeters.

Coal: Processing - Basic


Screening - Screening is used to separate different sizes of crushed coal. In
this process coarse and fine coal is separated so to accommodate for
specific markets and industrial usage. While finer coal is ideal for burning in
horizontal kilns, Coarser coal is also required by customers who burn coal in
gratefired applications.
Beneficiation/Washing - During beneficiation, coal is processed to remove
impurities reducing ash and Sulphur thereby improving the market value of
the coal. Beneficiation can improve the quality of contaminated coal that
would otherwise be wasted. Most cleaning processes involve washing the
coal in order to separate coal particles from stone particles as coal is
considerably lighter.
Charring - Coal can be charred, a process wherein hydrogen and oxygen are
removed from the coal to make it purer form of carbon. Once processed
according to specifications, coal is loaded and transported accordingly.

Coal: Technologies - Gasification


Within the production of synthetic natural gas from coal
or biomass the major conversion step is gasification,
generating a product gas containing a mixture of
permanent and condensable gases, as well as solid residues
(e.g., char, ash).
The gasification step can be conducted in different
atmospheres and using different reaction agents.
The figure represents the basic pathway from solid fuel to
methane, considering the main elements, carbon,
hydrogen, and oxygen.

Coal: Technologies Gasification

Coal: Gasification
Major Reactions

Coal: Gasification Reactor

Coal: Safety

Coal: Economics

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