COURSE: NSC 112

APPLIED CHEMISTRY FOR THE HEALTH

SCIENCES

Semester 1
Academic year: 2013/2014

Lecturers: Mr O. Otukile
/T.M.SETAMMERE/
I.NYEPETSI
1

COURSE STRUCTURE

Theory hours (3 credits)

24 Practical hours (1 credit)
Total credits: 4
Mode of Assessment

Tests 1
Test 2
25%
End of Semester Examination
Total
100%

25%
50%

Reference:

Sackheim, G. T. & Lehman, D. D. (1998). Chemistry for

the Health Sciences. (8th ed). New-Jersey: Prentice
Hall.
George, I.S., & Dennis, D. L. (1998). Chemistry for the
health sciences. (8th ed.).Tokyo:Prentice Hall. Inc. .
2

UNIT 1
INORGANIC CHEMISTRY
WHAT IS CHEMISTRY?
Chemistry is the branch of science
that studies the composition ,
structure and properties of
matter and the changes that
matter undergo.
3

Role of Chemistry in
modern life/ health

Chemistry is at the core of every

technology we enjoy today,(e.g. colouring
of clothes, shapes of our PCs)
Life itself is full of chemistry .i.e its a
series of continuous biochemical processes,
( i.e. from composition of cell to the whole
organism).
Chemistry plays a major role in
pharmaceutical advances , forensic science
and modern agriculture.
Medicines and drugs that we take to
treat
4

MATTER
Definition: Anything that has mass and
occupies space.
There are three states that matter can
exist in namely:
1. SOLID
2. LIQUID
3. GAS
This is dependent on temperature, and
other physical conditions.
5

SOLIDS
Characteristics:

Particles are closely packed in a regular

arrangement.
The movement is restricted
Have a fixed shape and definite volume
When they are heated they vibrate within their
fixed points
Their particles do not flow
Generally incompressible
Relatively high density
6

LIQUIDS
Characteristics:
Particles are not closely packed but are still in
contact with each other
They have no definite shape (i.e. they take the
shape of the container).
Have definite volume.
The particles are flowing or mobile.
When they are heated, they slightly expand e.g.
Hg
Incompressible
Relatively less dense
7

GASES
Characteristics:
The particles are further away from each
other and are independent.
Their particles flow easily
No definite volume(fills up the whole
container)
Takes up shape of the container.
They expand when heated.
Low density
8

Properties of matter
Physical Properties:
tells us what a substance is (i.e they can be
measured without changing the chemical
nature of the substances present) . Some
common examples of physical properties are:
volume, mass, temperature, pressure ,
solubility, color, density, melting point,
boiling point, hardness.
Chemical properties:

This properties can be observed only when a

substance undergoes a chemical change,
that is when a new substance is formed. E.g.
9
Its reaction with acids or bases, how fast
it

Changes in matter

Matter can undergo two types of changes: i.e

physical changes and chemical changes.
A Physical change indicates:
A change from one physical state to another
Examples of changes of states of matter are: condensation,
melting, evaporation,, freezing and sublimation

A change in density
A change in temperature
A change in colour
Breaking into smaller pieces.
N.B: In a physical change, no new substances
are formed.
10

Changes of matter cont

A chemical change(or chemical
reaction) involves the conversion of
one or more substances into other
substances. During this change a
totally new substance is formed,
with properties different from the
initial substance.

11

Changes of matter cont

A chemical change involves
conditions like:
Burning in air
Removing stain
Reaction with acid or base
EXERCISE 2.7: pg 37.
12

Changes of matter cont

Comparison between Physical and
Chemical Properties/changes.
Physical

Chemical

1.No new substance

is
formed
2.Tells what the
substance
is(identity)
3.Properties do not
change

A new substance is
formed
Tells what the
substance does
(ability to react)
Properties of a new
substance differ from
those of the initial
substance
13

Composition of Matter

Matter comprises any of

these:
- Elements
- compounds
- Mixtures.
14

ELEMENTS

An element is a substance made from

only one type of atom.
E.g.An element sodium is made
entirely from sodium atoms.
An element is a pure substance which
cannot be broken down (chemically)
into a more simple substance by any
ordinary chemical means.
It can also be defined as the building
15
block of all matter.

Cont

Elements are arranged in the periodic table in the

order of increasing atomic number.
Two types/classes of elements exists: Metals and
non-metals.
Metals are on the left and non-metals on the right
of the periodic table .
Elements are represented as shorthand symbols
and some of these symbols are derived from their
Latin names e.g - Sodium(Na) from Natrium
- Copper(Cu) from Cuprium
- Gold(Au) from Aurium
-Lead(Pb) from Plumbum
-Silver( Ag) from Argentum
-Iron(Fe) from Ferrum
16

Elements present in
human body
1.Nutritionally important elements
required in amount greater than 100 mg
per day are as follows;
1. Calcium
2. Magnesium
3. Potassium
4. Sodium
5. Chlorine
6.Phosphorus
17

Cont
2.Trace elements are and their
importance
1. Iodine-thyroid hormones
2. Iron-production of red blood cells,
production of
enzymes, converts blood sugar to
energy
3. Copper-synthesis of hemoglobin, bones,
oxidative enzymes,
4. Zinc-enzymes, normal growth, nucleic acid
metabolism
18

COMPOUNDS

Compounds are pure substances

that contains at least two elements
which are chemically combined
(cannot be separated by physical
means).

19

Properties of Compounds

They have definite proportions or percentage

by weight of substances they were made
from (obey law of definite proportion)

(Law of definite proportion- elements in a given compound are

always combined in the same proportion by mass.)

They cannot be separated by physical

means, but can be separated by chemical
means.
The individual elements in a compound lose
their individual properties e.g. Water, H2O
and sodium chloride, NaCl (salt).
Compounds are always homogenous(
same
20

MIXTURES

A mixture is when two or more elements

are physically combined
A mixture does not obey the law of
definite proportion e.g. a mixture of salt
and sand.
Both homogenous (e.g. Milk) and
heterogeneous (composition is not
uniform) (e.g. sugar and salt)
Mixtures can be separated by physical
means e.g. Filtration, Distillation.
21

Comparison between
mixtures and compounds
MIXTURE

COMPOUND

1. A mixture is when two or more

elements are physically combined

Are substances that contains at least

two elements which are chemically
combined

2. can be separated by physical means

e.g. Filtration, Distillation.

cannot be separated by physical means

3. does not obey the law of definite

proportion

obey the law of definite proportions

4. Both homogenous (e.g. Milk)

and heterogeneous (e.g. sugar
and salt)

are always homogenous

Examples: milk, sugar and salt

Water, NaCl (Salt)

22

MOLECULE

A molecule is a composition of
elements or combination of atoms.
In most cases, molecules are
formed from a combination of non
metals e.g.
- H2O molecule
- O2 molecule
- C2H5OH alcohol
- Cl2 molecule
23

Molecule cont
Major components of molecules in
our bodies are; O2, H2, N2, S2 and
Carbon.

24

Separation techniques

Many mixtures contain useful substances mixed with

unwanted material. Below are some of the
methods/techniques of separation chemists use/have
developed to obtain useful substances from the
impurities. The method employed depends on what is in
the mixture ,its properties(physical), and whether its a
solid, liquid or a gas.
1.
Filtration
2.
Evaporation
3.
Centrifuging
4.
Crystallizing
5.
Simple distillation
6.
Fractional distillation
7.
Chromatography
8.
Separating funnel
25

1. Filtration

This is a process used for separating an

insoluble solid from a liquid. e.g sand from
water.
Water is first allowed to stand in a large
reservoir where most of the suspended
dirt, clay and mud settle out. This process
is known as Sedimentation.
The solution is then passed through a
sieve of different sizes, starting with the
large one and decreasing in size as you go
down to filter out particles from large
ones to smaller ones. Sand will be trapped
26
in the sieve while water passes through.

Filtration

27

2. Evaporation

This method is used to obtain a soluble

solid(solute) from its solution. E.g
solutions of salts like sea water.
Evaporation is when a liquid changes
into a vapour, this is achieved by slowly
heating the solution until all the solvent
is gone, and the solid(solute) remains
behind as powder or crystals.

28

Evaporation

29

Evaporation

30

3. Centrifuging

This is another method of separating a

suspended solid from solution.
This technique is based on density of
substances to be separated, and is used
when the solid particles are so small that
they spread out (disperse) throughout the
liquid and remain in suspension.
E.g. separation of the bacteria and the
liquid

The suspension of bacteria and liquid is

placed inside a centrifuge and spun at high
speed
The motion causes bacteria to separate
from
31

Centrifugation cont

The pure liquid can then be

decanted after the solid has been
forced to the bottom of the
tube(s).

(Decant-poor off the liquid without disturbing the

sediments)

32

Centrifugation

33

Centrifugation

34

Separation of red blood cells from

plasma using a laboratory centrifuge

35

Centrifugation cont

When separating red blood cells

(solid) from plasma(liquid) the
blood cells are flung to the bottom
of the tube, allowing the liquid
plasma to be decanted.

36

4. Crystallization

This technique is used to separate a

solid that has dissolved in a liquid and
made a solution. e.g Salt from salty
water:
This is how it can be done in the lab:
The solution is warmed in an open
container, allowing the solvent to
evaporate, leaving a saturated solution.
Stop heating when crystals begin to
37
form( when solution is saturated)

Crystallization

Leave mixture to cool slowly.

The solid will come out of the
solution and crystals will start to
grow.
The crystals can then be collected
and allowed to dry.

38

Crystallization

39

5. Simple Distillation

This is the process in which a

solvent(liquid) is separated from
solution. E.g. water can be
obtained from salty water using
this method.
The solution is heated in a flask
until it boils, and rises as steam
and collected in a condenser.
The condensed steam is known
as
40

Simple distillation

41

6. Fractional Distillation

This is a technique in which a

mixture of miscible liquids are
separated by means of their
different boiling points. E.g
separating ethanol from water.
When the mixture is heated the
vapours of ethanol and water boils
off at different temperatures and
condenses at different
temperatures, hence they can
42 be

Fractional distillation

43

7. Chromatography

Chromatography is the separation of two

or more substances ( solutes) from their
solvent by the differences in solubility.
Many different solvents are used such as a
mixture of water and organic compounds
such as ethanol,ethanoic acid, methanol,
acetone, etc.
Various types exists.e.g paper
chromatography, column
chromatography, e.t.c.
44

Usefulness of
chromatography

It is used in the analysis, i.e. separating

and identifying small quantities of
unknown substances present in a mixture.
Applications:

Finding out which dyes or preservatives have

been added to food substances e.g. ice-cream
& soft drinks.
Finding out whether there are any harmful
substances in drinking water.
To detect consumption of illegal drugs by
people.
45

Paper Chromatography

Paper chromatography uses capillary force that

slowly moves water or solvent and the sample up the
paper strip. The most soluble compounds of the
sample will go further & the less soluble will stay at
the start line, ( substances are absorbed with
different strengths by the paper).When the solvent
reach solvent front the run is complete.
The solvent is called the mobile phase while the
paper strip is called the stationary phase.
The distance moved by a particular spot/component
is measured and related to the position of the solvent
front
The ratio of these distances is called Fry value, this
46
value is used to identify substances by comparing

Chromatogram

47

Separating funnel

This technique is used to separate a

mixture of two immiscible liquids. E.g
oil and water.
The mixture is poured into the
separating funnel and allowed to settle
into two separate layers.
The less dense liquid (oil) floats on top
while the more dense liquid (water)
sinks to the bottom.
48

Separating funnel

An empty container is then placed

below the funnel and tap is opened
to allow the denser liquid to flow
out. Once this liquid is drained out
the tap is closed.
Another container can be used to
collect the remaining (second)
liquid.
49

Separating funnel

50

Exercise

Describe briefly how you will separate

the following:
A mixture of two solids whose boiling
points are 50 C and 120 C
respectively.
The components present in a
biological sample e.g. in blood plasma,
in urine, and in plant extract.
Penicillin from an aqueous solution of
penicillin (hint: penicillin is organic 51

ATOM
An atom is the smallest particle of an
element.
REMEMBER: An element is made from
only one type of atom.
It has the chemical properties of the
element it comes from
In the human body we have : atoms
cells tissue
organ system
organism

52

ATOMIC STRUCTURE

The term structure is used in

chemistry to denote : type of particles
present in a substance and their
arrangement relative to each other.
The structure of an atom is made up of
the following particles (sub-atomic
particles);

Protons
Neutron
Electrons

53

Atomic structure

Various models have been

proposed to describe the
structures of atoms.
According to a simple model, the
Rutherford- Bohr model (1913),
electrons move around the central
nucleus in orbits/ shells/energy
levels.
Protons and neutrons are found
in
54

Atomic models

55

Properties of sub-atomic
particles
Particle

Mass

Charge

Location

Proton

+1

Nucleus

Neutron

Nucleus

Electron

1/1840

-1

Orbits/
shells
56

Atomic & Mass numbers

Atomic number is the number of

protons in an atom.
This is the number that identifies
the atom.
For neutral atom, the atomic
number is equal to the number of
electrons.
Mass number is the sum of
protons and neutrons in the nucleus
57
of an atom.

Electronic configuration
The arrangement of electrons in an
atom follows the equation, 2n2.
- Where n is the shell number/energy
level
1st shell takes 2*12 = 2 electrons
2nd shell takes 2*22 = 8 electrons
3rd shell takes 2*32 = 18 electrons
E.g. Na(11 electrons); 2, 8, 1
Cl(17 electrons); 2, 8, 7

58

CHEMICAL BONDING

A chemical bond is what holds the

atoms, ions and molecules
together.
Two main types of bonding;

Ionic (electrovalent)
Covalent

59

Ionic bonding

An ionic bond results when an electron (s) are

transferred from one atom to another resulting
in the formation of ions that attract each other.
The atom losing electrons result in the
formation of a positive ion(called cation) and
the one gaining this electrons forms a negative
ion called anion.
The electrons used are those in the outermost
energy level( last shell electrons)
The shell holding this electrons(outermost
shell) is often called valence shell.
The electrons found in the valence shell are
often called valence electrons.
N.B: THIS TYPE OF BOND EXIST BETWEEN
METAL ATOMS AND NON-METALS ATOMS
ONLY.
60

Ionic bonding

Examples;
1. Na + Cl
Na+ + Cl- (NaCl)
In the example above , the most
important step is the transfer of
the valence electron from sodium
atom to a chlorine atom. The loss
of an electron from an atom of
sodium results in the formation of
an Na+ ion whose e.c is 2,8 (a
noble gas configuration).
61

Ionic cont
At the same time the gain of an
electron by a chlorine atom result
in a Cl- ion which has the e.c
2,8,8( a noble gas configuration).
Take home exercise:
(a)Draw a cross and dot diagram for
the bond between magnesium and
oxygen atoms. Show valence
electrons only.
(b)How many electrons must62be lost

Ionic cont
2. Mg +2 Cl

Mg2+ + 2ClMgCl2

In this example two electrons from an

Mg atom are transferred to two Cl atoms.
A Mg2+ ion and two Cl- ions will then be
formed. The oppositely charged ions
will bond together by ionic bonding.
Valency or combining power: is the
size of the charge on an ion, and is
important when writing formulae of
ionic compounds, because it gives the
ratios of the atoms present in a63

Valency cont

Chlorine ion has a valency of 1.

Sodium ion can bond with only
one chlorine ion, whereas
magnesium ion can combine with
two chloride ions.
However, some elements
particularly transition elements
posses two ions with different
valencies. E.g copper can have
64
copper one ion, Cu1+ with valency

Rules for determining

valency

For group 1-4:valency(combining

power) equals group number.
For group 5- 8:valency= 8- (group
number).

65

Chemical formulae of ionic

compounds
Write down the chemical formulae
of the following using the valency
of the resulting ions.
(a) Lithium chloride
(b) Magnesium oxide
(c) Calcium chloride
(d) Aluminium oxide
(e) (i) Iron(III) chloride (ii) copper(I)
oxide
66

Properties of ionic cmpds

Property

Reason

1.They are usually crystalline

solids at room temperature with
high and melting and boiling points

This is due to the strong

electrostatic forces holding ions /
lattice together, therefore a lot of
energy is needed to separate the
ions to melt and then boil the
substance.

2.They are usually hard substances

Due to strong forces

3.They usually cannot conduct

electricity in a solid state

The ions are held in crystalline

structure and as such are not free
to move.

4. They mainly dissolve in water

This is because the water

molecules are able to bond with
both the positive end and negative
ions , which breaks the lattice and
keeps ions apart.

5.Usually conduct electricity in

molten state or aqueous solution

The forces between ions are

weakened and ions are free to
move, thereby allowing67electric

RADICALS

Radicals are poly atomic ions.

Poly atomic ions (Radicals) is a
group or combination of atoms
which will react as a unit or as one
simple ion.
COMMON ATOMIC IONS;
Name
formula and charge
Sulfate
SO
68

Physiological importance
of ions

For vital body processes

Regulation of digestive processes
Enzyme activity
Conduction of nervous impulses
Control contraction and relaxation
of muscles
Part of blood buffer system
69

Ions in the intra-cellular

body fluids
intra-cellular body fluids are those
within the cell
e.g. (a) Potassium ion , K+

(b) Phosphate, PO43-

70

Functions of potassium ion

Maintains:
Osmotic pressure of cells
Electric pressure of cells
Size of cells
Proper contraction of the heart
Proper transmission of nerve
impulses
it is part of the buffer system. E.g.
in form of salt .e.g KHCO3 71

Functions of phosphate ion

Present in the body as calcium

phosphate, a substance that gives
bones their rigidity.
Maintains the bodys acid-base
balance: it is part of the buffer
system.

72

Ions in the extra-cellular

body fluids
extra-cellular body fluids are those
outside the cell e.g.
Sodium ion
Chloride ion

73

Functions of sodium ion

Maintains osmotic pressure of

extra cellular body fluids
Maintains blood pressure
Controls water retention in tissue
space
Maintains bodys acid-base
balance: is part blood buffer
system
Proper contraction of the muscles
74

Functions of chloride ion

Helps in transportation of oxygen

and carbon dioxide in the blood
A component of gastric
hydrochloric acid.

75

Deficiency of some ions

Hypokalemia -a lower than normal
serum potassium ion
concentration.
This may be due:
o Too low intake of potassium
ions( during starvation or due to
diets deficient in potassium)
o Too much loss of potassium, due to
(use of diuretics e.g caffeine,
76
vomitting , diarrhea

hyponatremia

o
o
o
o
o

A lower than normal serum sodium ion

concentration.
This is due to causes such as:
Vomitting
Diarrhea
Hormone disorder
Starvation
Loss of sodium ion due to kidney
damage
77

goiter

A condition in which the thyroid

gland enlarges because of lack of
iodine in the diet,(lack of iodide
ion).

78

Covalent bonds

Covalent bond result from the

sharing of valence electrons
between the bonded atoms. It
results in the formation of
molecules.
It normally takes place between
non-metals.
The bond is known as single bond if
two electrons(a pair) is shared. E.g
79
Single bond in Chlorine molecule

Covalent cont

A double bond if four electrons are

shared(2 pairs of electrons). E.g
Double bond in O2 (O=O).

A tripple bond if six electrons are

shared( 3 pairs of electrons).E.g
tripple bond in N2 (NN).

80

Properties of covalent
bonds

As simple molecules they are

usually gases , liquids, or solids
with low melting and boiling points
. This is due the weak
intermolecular forces of attraction .
Giant molecules , however have
high melting because the whole
structure is held together by strong
covalent bonds.
81

Covalent substances

They are flammable.

Generally do not conduct
electricity when molten or
dissolved in water , this is because
they do not contain ions.
Most of them do not dissolve in
water, but dissolve readily in
organic solvents like
methylbenzene ,paraffin , diesel
82

Uses of some covalent

compounds

N2O (Dinitrogen oxide) Used as a

general anesthetic(unable to feel pain).
CHCl3 (Chloroform) anesthetic
(causes cancer if over used).
HCHO (Methanal or Formaldehyde)
used as a disinfectant. 40% known as
Formalin is used as a germicide for
disinfecting clothes and rooms
previously occupied by patients. It is
also used for preserving biological
specimen e.g. sperms
83

Cont

C2H5OH (Ethanol)

used as an antiseptic, normally at

70% concentration.
- can also be used as a sponge
bath to reduce fever from a
patient.
CH COCH (Acetone) used as a
3
3
solvent.
84

Metallic bond

Definition:

This is the bond formed between positive

metal ions and free electrons

In most metals the outermost/last shell

electrons are relatively loosely bound to
the atomic nucleus and breaks away
easily from the atom. This results in the
formation of positive metal ions.
The formed metal ions are fixed(remain
closely packed together), while the free
electrons move about between the
positive metal ions. The electrostatic
force of attraction between these
metallic ions and the free(delocalised)
electrons is called metallic bond.85

Metallic bond

This bonding can be described as a

lattice of positive ions in a mobile
of sea of electrons.
Due to the fact that free electrons
moves about, explains how metals
conduct electricity and heat energy
and also that metals can change
their shapes without breaking.
86

Properties of metallic
substances

Good conductors of heat and

electricity e.g copper and
aluminium used in electrical
cables.
Can change shape without
breaking , therefore are ductile
and malleable (because free
electrons continue to hold metal
ions together),
87
They are hard , tough and strong

Polar and non-polar

substances

Electronegativity the attraction of electrons

by an element(s) or atom(s) in a chemical
bonding.
Non-Polar-covalent bonds:

Bond in which electrons are shared equally between

atoms.

Electrons are shared equally between like atoms or

between atoms of the same electronegativity. E.g. H-H
or Cl-Cl

Polar-covalent bonds:

Bond in which electrons are shared between atoms

of different electronegativity.

E.g. H2O (Oxygen is more electronegative than

Hydrogen and becomes the negative side of the
88
molecule)

Chemical stoichiometrychemical reactions and

equations

1.

Chemical reactions- a chemical change in which

new substance(s) are formed . The new
substance(s) formed are called products and the
reacting/combining substances are called
reactants.
There are various types of chemical reactions
some of which are:
synthesis/combination: two or more
substances combine to make a single
substance. E.g hydrogen and oxygen to make
water.
Large biological molecules are built from
89
smaller ones following a synthesis reaction e.g

chemical reactions and

equations
2.Decomposition- breaking down of
larger substances into simpler ,
finer and smaller substances. E.g
decomposition of calcium carbonate
(limestone) by heating.
Food in our bodies is broken down
or digested following a
decomposition reaction. E.g glucose
and oxygen gives carbon dioxide ,
90
water and energy.

chemical reactions and

equations

Precipitation- two or more

soluble substances react and
products of such reaction are a
soluble substance and an insoluble
substance. The insoluble substance
is known as a precipitate, and
settle to the bottom of a reaction
container . e.g two soluble salts
reacting together produce a
91
soluble salt and insoluble salt.

chemical reactions and

equations

Neutralization- a reaction between

an acid and a base forming water
and a soluble salt.
Some evidences to show a reaction
has taken place are: a temperature
change , a gas being produced, a
change in colour, burning, e.t.c.
92

chemical reactions and

equations

Chemical equation- The shorthand

way of representing a chemical
reaction . Only symbols of
substances are used.
State symbols: another useful
chemical shorthand in equations,
showing the physical state of a
substance, thus whether a solid,
liquid, gas, e.t.c .and the following
93
is adopted (s) solid, (l)- liquid,

Balancing equations

1.

2.
3.

This means ensuring that each side of an

equation contains the same number of
atoms( number of atoms in reactants
equals number of atoms in products).
This requires three simple steps:
Write down the chemical equation for
the reaction,(writing correct molecular
formulae of each substance and,
including state symbols.
Recognize reactants and products.
Balance number of atoms on both
sides.
94

Balancing equations
cont

Ca(OH)2(s) + HCl(aq)
CaCl2(s) + H2O(l)
AgNO3 (aq) + FeCl3 (aq)
AgCl(s) + Fe (NO3)3(aq)

95

Rate of reaction

The measure of amount of reaction

that occurs in a single unit of time .
e.g in a second , minute or hour or
days or weeks.
Normally one measures amount of
reactants used up or products
produced per unit time. Or by
observing formation of precipitate
over a period of time.
96

Factors affecting rate of

reaction

Concentration- amount of substance per

unit volume. E.g a patient with respiratory
disease can breath more easily when
using nasal catheter with oxygen
because concentration of oxygen in the
lungs is increased.
Temperature- the degree of hotness or
coldness of a body. This affects the
kinetic energy of particles hence their
speeds.
E.g : heat coagulates and destroy proteins
97
present in bacteria. Hence sterilization of

Factors affecting rate of

reaction

Surface area- area available for collision of

reacting substances . Breaking into smaller
pieces increases areas of contacts thereby
increasing the collisions as result increasing
rate of reaction . e.g villi in the small
intestines increases area available for
absorption of nutrients . Many medications
are given in form of finely divided
suspended solids.
Catalyst-speed rate of chemical reaction by
lowering activation energy. E.g enzymes,
98

Chemical stoichiometry

The quantitative relationship between chemical

substances in a reaction is known as
stoichiometry.
Avogadro was a pioneer in this field of chemistry.
Avogadro hypothesized that there was a specific
number that would represent the number of
atoms or molecules in a mole of that atom or
molecule
The weight of that unit known as a mole ~would
be equivalent to the atomic or molecular weight
of the atom or molecule in grams.
According to this theory, one mole of carbon-12
would have a mass of 12 grams because carbon12 has an atomic weight of 12 (6 neutrons
and 6
99

Chemical stoichiometry

Avogadros number

This is the number of atoms in 12g of C-12 (6.022 x

1023 atoms)

6.022 x 1023 is Avogadros constant

The same number of atoms is present in a

mass of any element equal to its relative
atomic mass expressed in grams. This amount
of any element is called 1 mole (1 mol) of the
element.
1 Mole can therefore be defined as the
amount of an element that contains
6.022 x 1023 atoms (the same number of
atoms in 12g of carbon-12).
100

Calculation of Amount (in

moles)

The amount of a substance is given

by:
Mass of substance

Amount (in moles) of Substance

Molar mass of substance

101

Application of the equation

What is the amount (in moles) of

sodium present in 4.6 g of sodium?
If you need 2.5 mol of sodium
hydroxide, what mass of sodium
hydroxide do you have to weigh
out?

102

Measurement of
Concentration

Five units of concentration that are particularly

useful to chemists.( Concentration is amount
of solute present in a given amount of
solution).
Molality
Molarity
Normality
% volume
% weight
The first three units are dependant upon the
mole unit.
103

Molarity (M)

Molarity is the concentration of the

solution in moles per litre/dm3 (i.e.
amount in moles per litre)
A molar (1 M) solution is a solution
which contains 1 mole of solute per
litre

No. of Moles
Molarity
Volume of solution (in l)
104

Problems
1.

2.

3.

What is the molarity of a solution of

sodium chloride which contains 0.5
moles in 200 cm3?
What volume of a 1M solution of
hydrochloric acid will contain 10
Moles?
How much sodium hydrogen
carbonate (NaHCO3) will be needed to
make up 500 cm3 of a 4 M solution?
105

Problems cont
4.

a. What volume of 2 M copper

sulphate would be needed to
react with 13 g zinc according to
the equation:

Zn(s) + CuSO4 (aq,)

b.

ZnSO4(aq) + Cu(s)

What mass of copper is produced in the

reaction? (Cu = 64, Zn = 65)

106

Molality (m)

The molal unit is not used nearly

as frequently as the molar unit.
Definition:
Molality is the number of moles of
solute dissolved in one kilogram
(1000g) of solvent, that is.

molality =moles of solute/mass of

solvent (kg)
107

Molality

E.g. 1: to prepare 1 molal, or 1 m , of

sodium sulfate aqueous solution, we
need to dissolve 1 mole(142.0g) of the
substance in 1000g (1kg) of water.
E.g 2: To make a one molal aqueous (water) solution of
sodium chloride (NaCl) ,

measure out one kilogram of water and add one

mole of the solute, NaCl to it.
The atomic weight of sodium is 23 and the atomic
weight of chlorine is 35.
Therefore the formula weight for NaCl is 58, and 58
grams of NaCl dissolved in 1kg water would result in
a 1 molal solution of NaCl.
108

Difference between
Molarity and Molality

Be careful not to confuse molality

and molarity.
Molality is represented by a small
"m," whereas molarity is
represented by an upper case "M."
Note that the solvent must be
weighed unless it is water.
109

110

Calculation of Molality
(Class work)

If you have 10.0 grams of Br2 and

dissolve it in 1.00 L of
cyclohexane, what is the molality
of the solution? The density of
cyclohexane is 0.779 kg/l at room
temperature.

111

solution

First, work out the number of moles of bromine.

Br has a molecular weight of 159.8 g/mole,
2
so we have
10 g / (159.8 g/mole) = 0.063 moles BR2

Convert the volume of solvent to the weight of

solvent:

using the density 1.00 L * 0.779 kg/l = 0.779

kg
Now just divide the two to get the molality
0.063 moles Br / 0.779 kg cyclohexane =
2
0.080 molal

112

Molality

Calculate the molality of sulphuric

acid solution containing 24.4 g of
sulphuric acid in 198g of water.
Ans 1.26 molal.

113

Normality

There is a relationship between

normality and molarity.
Normality can only be calculated when
we deal with reactions, because
normality is a function of equivalents.

Normality = molarity x n
(where n = the number of protons
exchanged in a reaction)
114

Normality

Look at the equation

H3AsO4 + 2KOH --> K2HAsO4 + 2H2O:

And the part that is of interest to you is that:

Normality = molarity x n
(where n = the number of protons exchanged
in a reaction)
You probably remember that when a hydrogen
atom is ionized and loses its electron, you are
left with only a proton. So a hydrogen ion is
basically a proton.

115

Normality

Let's assume that we have a 0.25 M solution of H3AsO4 and want to

determine the normality of it if it participates in the reaction
H3AsO4 + 2KOH --> K2HAsO4 + 2H2O
When H3AsO4 is neutralized by KOH, H3AsO4 provides two protons to form
2H2O.
Note that H3AsO4 has three hydrogens, but K2HAsO4 only has one
hydrogen. That means that 2 protons were exchanged,
Again normality = molarity * n
Remember that molarity of the solution is 0.25 M H3AsO4 and there were
two protons exchanged (2 equivalents/mole)
Therefore, calculate normality of the above reaction.
So, in short, while there is a relationship between the normality of a
solution and the molarity of a solution, the normality can only be
determined by examining reaction, determining the proton exchange and
multiplying molarity by that number.
Normality is particularly useful in titrations calculations.
116

Normality

Normality is particularly useful in titrations

calculations, thus NaVa = NbVb
Where:

N = normality

V = volume

a = the substance on the left of the

equation involved in proton exchange,

b = substance on the right of the equation

involved in proton exchange
117

Percentages(%)

Percentages (%) are easy to

calculate because they do not
require information about the
chemical nature of the substance.
Percentages (%) can be
determined as percent by weight
or percent by volume.
118

Percentage composition

Uu
E.g. one type of calcium supplement
tablet states that each table contains
1500mg (1.5g) calcium carbonate.
Calculate the

119

Percentage by weight
The percent by mass( also called
percent by weight or weight percent)
is the ratio of the mass of solute to
the ratio to the mass of solution,
multiplied by 100 percent:
Percent by mass of solute = mass of
solute/ mass of solute + mass of
solvent *100%
= mass of solute/mass of soln
120
*100%

Percentage by weight
E.g: a 0.892g sample of potassium
chloride is dissolved in 54.6g of
water. what is the percent by mass
of potassium chloride in this
solution?
Solution:
% by mass of KCl = 0.892g/ 0.892g
+ 54.6 g *100% = 1.61%.

121

Law of mass action

states the following principle:

the rate of a chemical reaction is

directly proportional to the molecular
concentrations of the reacting
substances
the rate of any given chemical
reaction is proportional to the product
of the activities (or concentrations) of
the reactants
122

Titration

Titration is a quantitative method in which neutralization

(reaction between an acid and base) reaction occurs .
Titration is sometimes carried to determine the
concentration of a solution by reacting it with another
solution of known concentration. The solution whose
concentration is known is called a standard solution.
A pipette is used to accurately measure a volume.
A burette is used to measure accurately the volume of
solution added , whose concentration we dont know about,
or we want to find.
A volumetric flask is used to make a solution of accurately
known concentration( called standard solution).
The point of neutralization in titration is known as the end
point (showing that a chemical reaction between
components in the solution is complete) .
The indicator shows the colour change when the end point
has been achieved.
123

Problem

In an experiment to determine the

concentration of a solution of
potassium hydroxide, 25 cm3 of it
was titrated with 0.1 M
hydrochloric acid. 16.2 cm3 of the
acid was required. What is the
molarity of the potassium
hydroxide?
124

Reversible reactions

Reversible reactions are the ones in

which when two or more reactants unite
to form a certain number of products,
these products unite to reform the
original reactants.
These reactions are indicated by double
arrows (
) showing that the reaction
may proceed in either direction,
depending on the conditions that exist.
125

Example of reversible
reaction

N2 + 3H2
2NH3
If we start with a mixture of N2 and H2 at
a given temp and pressure (with a
catalyst), we will soon have some NH3
formed.
As more NH3 is formed, it will begin to
decompose into N2 and H2
When the rates of formation and
decomposition are equal, a chemical
equilibrium forms (this means that the
rate of the forward reaction equals the
126
reverse reaction)

Le Chateliers Principle

Le Chateliers Principle states that:

If a stress is applied to a reaction at

equilibrium, the equilibrium will be
displaced in such a direction as to relieve
that stress

OR

When conditions are changed, a system in

a state of equilibrium adjusts itself in such a
way as to minimise the effects of the
change
127

Application of Le Chateliers Principle

(Physiological application of chemical
equilibrium)

Consider the following reaction in which

CO2 is removed as a waste product from
the body
CO2 + H2O

H2CO3

As CO2 flows into the body, its concentration

increases.
According to Le Chateliers principle, the
equilibrium shifts to the right and more H2CO3 is
produced.
As CO2 is exhaled, the equilibrium is shifted
128 to

ACIDS, BASES, SALTS,

FLUIDS AND
ELECTROLYTES.
ACID
An acid is defined as a hydrogen
ions (H+) donor in an aqueous
solution.
It can also be defined as a proton
donor.
Acids are not only liquids but some
are solids e.g. Boric acid and Citric
acid.
(Table 12-1 pg 194, common129acids)

Properties of Acids

They yield hydrogen ions when

placed in aqueous solution. E.g.
HNO3
H+ + NO3HCl
H+ + ClThey are electrolytes, thus are able
to conduct electricity .

130

Properties of Acids
Strong acids are completely
ionized in solution. Example:
weak acids are only partially
ionized.
Example:

131

Properties of Acids

We have different types of acids

depending on the number of hydrogen
ions they yield in the solution. Those that
yield one hydrogen ,(monoprotic acids)
are (HCl, HNO3, HC2H3O2), two hydrogen
ions (diprotic acids) are (H2SO4, H2CO3),
triprotic acids (H3PO4).

Hydrogen ions are too reactive to exist in

solution by themselves. They react with
water to form hydronium ions (H3O+).
H +HO
+

HO

132

Properties of Acids

Solutions of acids have a sour taste e.g.

lemon juice and grape juice (from citric
acid), vinegar (acetic acid) and sour
milk (lactic acid).
When acids react with certain
compounds, these compounds change
colour. E.g. Indicators (Litmus and
Phenolphthalein).
Blue litmus turns red in the presence of
acids.
Phenolphthalein turns from red133
to
Colourless in the presence of an acid.

Properties of Acids

Acids react with metal oxides to

form salt and water. E.g.
2HCl + MgO
H2O + MgCl2
(Acid)

(metal oxide)

(water)

(salt)

134

Properties of Acids

Reaction of acids with certain

hydroxides (called bases) result in
neutralization reaction. I.e.
H2SO4 + 2NaOH
2H2O + NaSO4
H+ + OH-

H2O [Net equation]

135

Properties of Acids

Acids react with any metal above

hydrogen in the activity series to
produce hydrogen gas and a salt. I.e.
Zn + H2SO4
ZnSO4 + H2
Cu + HCl
No reaction
Acids should not be allowed to come
into contact with surgical or dental
instruments which are made of stainless
steel (use plastic/bottle containers to
store it) as they will corrode them.
136

Properties of Acids
Acids reacts with carbonates and
bicarbonates to form CO2, H2O and salts.
I.e.
1. HCl + CaCO3
CaCl + H2CO3

(Acid)

(carbonate)

H2CO3

(salt)

(carbonic acid)

H2O + CO2

2. HNO3 + NaHCO3
(Acid)

H2CO3

(bicarbonate)

NaNO3 + H2CO3
(salt)

H2O + CO2

(carbonic acid)

137

Properties of Acids

Strong acids will attack clothing

and also have an effect on tissues.

138

Precautions in handling
and storing acids

Strong acids should not come into

contact with clothing as it will
attack them.
Do not handle acids with bare
hands.
If a strong acid is spilled on the
skin, the area should be washed
copiously with water.
139

Uses of acids in medicine

HCl found in the gastric juices

and necessary for the proper
digestion of proteins in the
stomach . Patients with lower than
normal amount of HCl in the
stomach (i.e. hypoacidity), are
given dilute HCl orally before
meals to overcome this deficiency.
140

Uses of acids in medicine

HNO3 (Nitric acid) used to test for the

presence of albumin in urine because it
coagulates protein. It has also been
used to remove warts, but
dichloroacetic acid and trichloroacetic
acid are now commonly used for this
purpose.
Hypochlorous acid (HClO) used as a
disinfectant for floors and walls in
hospital.
141

Uses of acids in medicine

Boric acid- used as a germicide.

Acetylsalicyclic acid (Aspirin) used as
an analgesic and as an antipyretic. It is
frequently taken by people with cold to
relieve headache, muscle pain and fever.
However, it does not remove the source of
the infection or effect cure.
Ascorbic acid (Vit C) from citrus fruits is
used in the prevention and treatment of
scurvy.
Benzoic acid treatment of fungal
142
infections.

BASES
Bases are substances that yield
hydroxide ions (OH-) in a water solution.
Examples,
NaOH
Na+ + OHKOH
K+ + OH It can also be defined as proton
acceptor.
OH- + H+
H2O
Strong bases are highly ionized and
have a great attraction for protons.
143
(Table 12-3 pg 198, commonly used

Properties of bases

.
.

Solution of bases have a slippery,

soapy feeling and a bitter taste.
Bases react with indicators as
follows;
turns red litmus blue
Turns methyl orange from orange
to yellow
Turns phenolphthalein from
144
colourless to red.

Properties of bases

Neutralize acids to form water and

salt.
Ca(OH)2 + H2SO4
2H2O +
CaSO4

Strong bases react with certain

metals to produce hydrogen gas.
2Al + 6NaOH + 6H2O
3H2+2NaAl(OH)6

145

Uses of Bases

Lye (NaOH) used to remove fats and

grease from clogged drains.
- also used for conversion of fat to soap.
Lime water [Ca(OH)2] used to
overcome excess acidity in the
stomach.
- used for medical purposes as an
antidote for oxalic acid poisoning
because it reacts with the oxalic acid to
form an insoluble compound calcium
oxalate, CaC2O4.
146

Uses of Bases
Milk of magnesia Mg(OH)2 used as
an antacid for the stomach
- also used as a laxative when in the form
of a suspension of Mg(OH)2 in water.
Spirits of ammonia, containing NH OH
4
and (NH4)2CO3 is used as a heart and
respiratory stimulant.
NH OH is used as a water softener for
4
washing clothes.

147

Precaution on Bases

Strong bases should never be used

in an Al container because it will
rapidly react with and dissolve the
container.
Strong bases have a corrosive
effect on tissues because of their
ability to react with proteins and
fats and therefore should not be
held with bare hands.
148

Precaution on Bases

Strong laundry soaps are quite basic

and should not be used for washing
woolen clothing because the hydroxide
ion will attack the fibres and cause them
to shrink.
After using basic soap in diapers, rinse
thoroughly otherwise this can cause
severe sores on the tender skin of a
baby.
149

Salts

Salts are the products of a reaction

between an acid and base.
Salts contain the acid and base
part.
Salts have no common ion.

150

Properties of salts

They undergo hydrolysis

They react with metals to form another
salt and a different metal. E.g.
Zn + CuSO4
ZnSO4 + Cu
Two different salts in solution can react
by double displacement.
K2SO4 + Ba(NO3)2
2KNO3 + BaSO4
React with acids or bases to form other
salts and other acids and bases.
151

Uses of Salts

See Table 12-10 pg 208 for

common salts and their uses.

152

Solubility

A solution consists of a solute dissolved in a

solvent.
Solubility is the extent to which a solute
dissolves in a solvent.
Water is the most common solvent (universal
solvent) but there are many other such as
ethanol and trichloroethane.
The more soluble a substance is, the faster
will be the rate of reaction.
E.g. Glucose is very soluble and can readily be
absorbed in the blood.
153

pH

pH can be defined as the measure

of acidity or alkalinity of the
solution

It indicate the exact strength of an

acid or a base.
It indicates the hydrogen ion conc. in
a solution.

154

pH cont

Mathematically, the pH is defined as;

pH = - Log10 [H+]
Negative of the logarithm to base 10
of the concentration of the hydrogen
ion
A logarithm is an exponent. Therefore,
the logarithm of 10-4 is -4. Thus a
solution that has a [H+] = 10-4 or [H+]
=0.0001M has a pH of 4. i.e. pH = Log10 [H+]

and Log [H+] = Log [10-4155

] = -4

pH exercise
Calculate the pH of solution
which a concentration of 0.01M.
What would be the
concentration of solution which
has pH value of 7.45?
Calculate the pOH of 0.025M
NaOH
2,3.5x10-8,12.4

156

pH scale

The pH ranges from 0 to 14

For a neutral solution, pH = 7

For an acidic solution, pH< 7
For an alkaline solution, pH > 7

(See table 12-4 pg 202 for the pH

scale)

157

Methods of measuring pH

There are two methods of

measuring pH and they are;
1. pH meter (See fig 12-2, pg
203)

More accurate (Digital)

2. Indicator paper

Based on comparison of the colour (less

accurate as compared to the digital pH meter)

158

Buffer

A buffer solution is defined as the

solution that will resist changes in
pH on the addition of small
amounts of either an acid or a
base.

159

Buffer cont

Buffers are found in all body fluids and

are responsible for maintaining proper
pH for those fluids.
A buffer system usually consists of a
weak acid and a salt of a weak acid.
Blood has a pH range of 7.35 7.45

pH < 7.35: Acidosis

pH > 7.45: Alkalosis
160

Buffer systems (pg536)

The blood buffers consist of the

following;
1. Bicarbonate buffers
2. Phosphate buffers
3. Protein buffers (including hemoglobin
and oxyhemoglobin)

161

Bicarbonate buffer system

Consists of carbonic acid (H2CO3) and potassium bicarbonate (KHCO3)

i.e. in the red blood cells
Consists of carbonic acid (H2CO3) and sodium bicarbonate (NaHCO3)
i.e. in the blood plasma
In addition of a strong acid( HCl) to the blood sample, it will react with
the salt part and the following reactions occurs:
HCl + KHCO3
HCl + NaHCO3

KCl + H2CO3 (in blood cells)

H2CO3 + NaCl (in blood plasma)

Na+ and K+ ions act as spectator ions

NaCl and KCl produced is neutral and therefore does not hydrolyze.
The H2CO3 produced is part of the original buffer system and is only
slightly ionized and hence the pH will not be affected.

162

Bicarbonate buffer cont

In addition of a small amount of a strong base (eg. NaOH or

KOH) to the blood sample, it will react with the salt part and
the following reactions occurs:
KOH + H2CO3

KHCO3 + H2O (in blood cells)

NaOH + H2CO3

NaHCO3 + H2O (in blood plasma)

The salts KHCO3 and NaHCO3 are part of the original buffer
systems and the water produced is neutral, so the pH again
is not affected.

163

Phosphate buffer system

Consist of mixtures of K2HPO4 and

KH2PO4 (also Na2HPO4 and NaH2PO4),
which functions similarly to
bicarbonate buffers.
The following reactions occurs:
HCl + K2HPO4
KH2PO4 + KCl
KOH + KH2PO4

K2HPO4 + H2O
more buffer

neutral compound
164

Protein buffer system

There are the hemoglobin and

oxyhemoglobin buffers
Account for more than half of the
total buffering action in the blood
They pick up excess acid or base
to help keep the pH of the blood
within its normal range
165

UNIT 3
OXIDATION AND REDUCTION

166

OXIDATION

Oxidation may be defined in the 4

following ways;

1.
2.
3.
4.

Loss of electrons
Gain of oxygen
Loss of hydrogen
An increase in oxidation number

167

1. Loss of electrons

Example;
Na + Cl
Na+ClIn the above example, Na atom
loses an electron to a Cl atom as
they form an ionic bond.
Therefore Na atom was oxidized
and Cl was reduced.
168

2. Gain of oxygen

Examples;
1. Fe + O2

Fe2O3

Fe has gained oxygen and therefore

oxidized.
2. CH3COOH + H2
CH3CHO + H2O

Acetic acid (CH3COOH) lost oxygen to

hydrogen(therefore reduced) in forming
ethanal (CH3CHO). Hydrogen gained
oxygen and therefore oxidized.
169

3. Loss of hydrogen

2CH3CH2OH + O2
2H2O
(ethanol)

2CH3CHO +

(ethanal/acetaldehyde)

Ethanol lost a hydrogen molecule to oxygen

therefore it has been oxidized.
At the same time, the oxygen gained the
hydrogen and therefore reduced.

170

4. An increase in the
oxidation number
0

0
2

2Na + Cl

An uncombined element has an

oxidation number of zero.
The oxidation number of Na is +1
and that of Cl is 1.
Na has changed its oxidation
number from zero to +1.

2Na Cl

171

Reduction

Reduction is actually the opposite

of oxidation and can be defined by
the following;

1.
2.
3.
4.

Gain of electrons
Loss of oxygen
Gain of hydrogen
A decrease in oxidation number

172

Oxidizing Agents and

Reducing Agents

Oxidizing agents are substances that

causes the oxidation of an
element/compound.
Reducing agents are substances that
causes the reduction of an
element/compound.
If we combine the above definitions, we
can say that Whatever is oxidized is
the reducing agent and whatever is
reduced is the oxidizing agent.
173

Examples
Consider the following examples:
0
0
+
1. 2Na + Cl2
2Na Cl

Na has been oxidized it is the

reducing agent.
Cl has been reduced it is the
oxidizing agent.

174

Cont
0
2

+2

Pb + H2

2(+1)

Hydrogen was oxidized and

therefore it is a reducing agent.
PbO was reduced and therefore an
oxidizing agent.

175

-2

2. H

+ Pb O

-2

Application of Oxidizing
and Reducing agents
1. Antiseptic effects
.
Many antiseptics have a property of
killing bacteria. For example;

Chlorine

Calcium Hypochloride(CaCOCl2)

oxidizes organic matter and bacteria and so it is

used for water treatment.
oxidizing agent and bleaching powder used as a
disinfectant for clothes and hospital beds.

Formaldehyde and SO4

Reducing agents used for disinfecting rooms

formerly occupied by patients with contagious
diseases.
176

Cont
2.

Effects on hair proteins

Oxidation/Reduction agents denature protein

by affecting the disulfide bonds of the amino
acids cystein.
This is applied in home permanents.(See pg
109)

3. Black and white photography.

4. Stain removal

Rust and KMnO4 stain is removed by an oxalic

acid.

5. Breath - Alcohol analyzer.

177

Exercise: Redox reactions

In the equations that follows,

identify the oxidized/reduced
atoms or compounds.
1. Cl2 + 2KI
2KCl + I2
2. 2Al + 3H2SO4
3. Cu + 2AgNO3
4. 2H2 + O2

Al2(SO4)3 + 3H2
Cu(NO3)2 + 2Ag

2H2O
178

Physical and chemical

properties of oxides and water

179

Oxygen

It is the most abundant on the

Earths crust.
It is found in animals and plants in
large quantities.
It can be in the form of H2O, CO2,
C6H12O6, fats e.t.c.

180

Physical properties of
Oxygen

Colourless
Odourless
Tasteless
Has a high density (heavier than air)
It is transparent
On cooling, oxygen become a pale blue
liquid which boils at -182.5oc, its solid at
-218.4oc.
It is sufficiently soluble in water to allow
its diffusion from the alveoli to the
bloodstream and then to tissue cells (it
supports life).
181

Cont

At room temp, it is not chemically reactive. But

can only react with Phosphorous, Sodium and
Potassium. With an increase in temp, it reacts
with other elements.
It reacts directly with P, Na, K to form oxides.
It can also react with plants and animal tissues
directly in the presence of catalysts
(enzymes).
It is used in the bodys metabolism, formation
of new tissues, nerve and brain function,
muscle function including the cardiac.

182

Medicinal uses of O2/O2

Therapy

It is used as a source of life as it reacts

with the food products in the cells to
produce energy.
In cases of Hypoxia (condition in which
the body does not receive enough
oxygen), O2 must be administered to
permit the body to function normally.
Oxygen together with small amounts of
carbondioxide (for stimulation of
respiratory center of the brain) is used
for Newborn babies who have difficulty
in breathing.
183

Cont

During dental surgery when nitrous oxide is

used as the anesthetic, oxygen is also
administered to prevent asphyxiation (lack of
oxygen).
It is used in hospitals in the treatment of
cancerous tissues, in the treatment of patients
with gangrene and also in the treatment of
patients with carbonmonoxide poisoning.
Used in the hospitals in the determination of
the Basal Metabolic Rate(BMR), i.e. the
measuring of the energy production of the
body by measuring the oxygen breathed by a
patient during a specified time.
184

Precautions in the use of

oxygen

More oxygen leads to less air, dried

inhaled air.
Excessive drying leads to the loss of
formation of mucosal membrane of the
respiratory tract.
Loss of surface fluids leads to the
cracking of tissues.
Thickening or drying of respiratory tract
secretions results in plugs or crest in the
lower tract.
185

Oxygen Hazards

Do not allow smoking as it allows

combustion.
Do not allow lighters, matches, or
anything that causes fire to be held by
the patients.
Never use oil (or petroleum substances)
as they support burning.
Any oily equipment, fuels can ignite
without spark.
Do not allow the use of electric devices.
All the equipments and plugs should
be
186

Nitrous Oxide

Colourless, tasteless and almost

odourless.
Used as a general anesthetia
Heavier than air and less soluble in
blood.
Does not combine with
haemoglobin. However, it is carried
while dissolved in the blood
stream.
187

Nitrous Oxide cont

It is exerted through the lungs and

small amount through the skin.
Found to be useful in relieving pain
in heart attack victims, reducing
strain in the muscles.

188

Nitrous Oxide cont

It supports combustion.
In its use as an aesthetics, the
concentration should not exceed 70%,
excess of it causes Hypoxia.
Less amount of N2O results in less
potent (not active) or not potent enough
for most patients, so additional drugs
such as halothane or methoxyflurane
are used to complete anesthetia.
189

Carbon monoxide, CO

Colourless, odourless, tasteless

and non irritant to the body.
Has a greater affinity for
haemoglobin (about 200x than
oxygen).
Combines with haemoglobin
(carboxy-haemoglobin) to form a
strong bond and the bloods ability
to carry sufficient oxygen to
tissues greatly affected.
190

Carbon monoxide, cont

Levels of carboxy-haemoglobin
above 5 % of total likely to cause;
headache, drowsiness, fatigue
(which can lead to syncope i.e.
fainting, comma, respiratory failure
and can cause death at
concentrations of about 50%.
191

Carbon monoxide, Cont

0.1% of CO is lethal. Actual blood

concentration of CO gas necessary
to reach lethal levels is less than
0.1%.
Smokers are considered to have
carboxy-haemoglobin levels very
high and this have strong links
with the heart and brain diseases.
192

Carbondioxide
Properties
- makes up to 0.03% of the
atmosphere.
- Given off when materials that
contain carbon and oxygen
combine during burning.
- byproduct of respiration.
- used by green plants during
photosynthesis
193

Uses of Carbondioxide

1. Fire extinguishers; carbondioxide is

heavy and therefore smoothers the fire,
preventing air from getting to it.
2. A small amount of carbondioxide is
used together with oxygen in the
Newborn babies with difficulty in
breathing. The purpose of carbondioxide
is to stimulate the respiratory center of
the brain so that the rate of breathing
increases and oxygen is picked up more
rapidly and carried to the tissues.
194

Water

About 2/3 of our body weight is water.

Water is an important factor in many
reactions as it dissolves most
substances.
Pure water is tasteless, odourless and
freezes at 0oC.
At a pressure of 760mmHg(1 atm) it
boils at 100oC.
o
As water cools to temps below 4 C, it
o
expands until it freezes at 0 C.
195

Cont

Normally in the body, water intake

equals water output.
If water intake > water output, a
condition known as Oedema
results.
If water intake < water output ,
Dehydration occurs.
196

Physiological importance
of water

Water acts as a solvent, it dissolves

food, mineral salts and waste materials
in the digestive juices/blood/cells.
It makes up the bulk of the body fluids
such as blood, digestive juices and
sweat.
It eliminates waste; water in the blood
helps to eliminate waste products by
dissolving them and removing them
through the excretory organs. E.g. urine,
197
stool e.t.c.

Cont

Water reacts chemically with food

in digestion.The energy and body
building food with the exception of
simple sugars are too complex to
be absorbed by the blood and
utilized by the cells. Therefore in
the process they are hydrolyzed
with water of the digestive juices.
198

Cont

Water in the circulatory system

distributes the heat generated in
the oxidation of food in the tissues
throughout the body.Elimination of
heat is also done by sweating.
Acts as a lubricant by keeping the
tissues and joints moist.
199

Hard and Soft water.

Hard water: contains dissolved

compounds of calcium and magnesium
and forms a precipitate or scum and no
lather when soap is added.
Soft water: May contain dissolved
compounds but these compounds do
not cause hardness.It lathers when soap
in added.
Calcium and magnesium (cause
hardness) react with soap and therefore
removes soap from water and hence
200
requires more soap.

Purification of water

All foreign substances in water

(gaseous, liquid or solid) are technically
classified as impurities (may be harmful
or not).
Naturally occuring water contains
impurities dissolved from the rocks and
soil.
Rain water also contains particles of
dust and dissolved gases from the air.
201

Impurities in water

Impurities in water are of two main

types namely;
1. Inorganic or mineral matter
2. Organic matter

202

Inorganic or mineral
matter

This may consist of insoluble

matter like sand including
dissolved salts of Ca, Mg and Fe
(i.e. Ca2+, Mg2+ and Fe3+ ions).
When soap is added to this water,
an insoluble precipitate is formed.

203

Organic matter.

Organic matter includes bacteria from

the sewage and other forms of animal
and vegetable matter in various stages
of decay.
Water can still have the inorganic
matter and still be safe for drinking but
with any organic matter it is unsafe.
The statement that a certain water is
safe for drinking purposes does not
imply that there are no impurities of any
204
kind in the water.

Common methods of
water purification.
Note: Water purification is important
as it makes the water to be safe for
drinking
1. BOILING

Water from natural sources may be

safe for drinking by boiling for 10-15
minutes.

The process of boiling does not

remove the impurities but it kills any
pathogenic bacteria that might
be
205

2. Distillation

In this process, water is boiled and

the resulting steam is cooled and
condensed.
The condensed steam is known as
distilled water.

206

3. Sedimentation and
Filtration

Water is first allowed to stand in a large

reservoir where most of the suspended
dirt, clay and mud settle out.This
process is known as Sedimentation.
The solution is then passed through a
sieve of different sizes, starting with the
large one and decreasing in size as you
go down to filter out particles from large
ones to smaller ones.This is Filtration.
207

Ozone (O3)

Colourless (or sometimes slightly blue)

at room temp
Has a pungent odour, similar to that of
garlic
Heavier than oxygen and more soluble
in water
It is a powerful oxidizing agent
Has limited use due to its toxicity to the
body except in extremely small
amounts
Irritating to mucous membranes
208

Medical importance of
ozone

Ozone is not used medically for

any purpose because it reaches a
fatal concentration long before it
can act in any useful way.

209

Nitric oxide

Product of the combustion of petroleum

in gasoline engines
Produced in the body as it found in brain
cells, pancreas, liver gastro intestinal
tract and the blood vessels
Produced from the aminoacid arginine
Is involved in such functions as blood
pressure, penile erection, and inhibition
of blood clotting
210

Medical use of nitric oxide

Powerful vasodilator and therefore

has been used to open up the
vessels of patients receiving
ventilatory therapy
Acts as a bacteriocide and a
virucide

211

Sulphur oxide

Cause acute airway spasm and

poor airway clearance in all people
and exert deadly effect on patients
already disabled by lung disease
Concentrations of 8 to 10 ppm
cause immediate throat irritation,
and conc. of 20 ppm cause
immediate coughing
212

UNIT 4
LIQUID MIXTURES

213

LIQUID MIXTURES

A liquid mixture is a solution

comprising of dissolved
substances.
Liquid mixtures can be divided into
the following main categories;
1. Solutions
2. Suspensions
3. Colloids
4. Emulsions
214

Solution

A solution is a homogenous
mixture of two or more substances
evenly distributed in each other.
A liquid solution consists of two
parts namely the solute and the
solvent.

215

Properties of a solution

They consist of a soluble material

dissolved in a liquid.
Have a variable composition.
Are clear.
Are homogenous.
Do not settle.
Can be separated by physical means.
Pass through the filter paper.
216

Solute

A solute is a material that has dissolved.

The material can be solid, liquid or gas.
Example; salt crystals dissolved in water
to form a clear and colourless solution
(homogenous salty water). Other
homogenous solutions are coloured like
copper sulphate in water which is blue.
Concentration of the salty water varies
depending on the amount of salt added.
In the example above, the salt is a
solute.
217

Solvent

A solvent is a liquid material in

which the solute has dissolved.
In the previous example of salt and
water, the solvent is the liquid.

218

Importance of solutions

Used during digestion as foods are

changed to soluble substances so
that they can be absorbed into the
blood stream.
Waste products are also carried to
the other parts of the body where
they can be eliminated after being
dissolved in the blood.
219

Importance of solutions
cont

Many chemical reactions take

place in a solution state.
Many medications are
administered orally,
subcutaneously, intravenously as
solutions.
Drugs are absorbed more rapidly in
solution form.
220

Terminology used to
describe solutions

Dilute solution is a liquid mixture in

which a small amount of solute is
dissolved in a solvent.
Saturated solution- one whereby the
there is an equilibrium between solute
and solvent.
Concentrated solution is one that has
large amount of solute in relation to
solvent.
221

Molar solution is one that

contains 1 mole of solute per litre
of solution.
Mole is the number of atoms in
12.000 g of 12C.

222

Terminology used to
describe solutions cont

Normal solution is a liquid mixture in

which there is a balance between the
solute and the solvent.
Suspension is a liquid mixture in which
on standing, one part will settle down.
E.g. milk of magnesia shake before
using.
Colloid is a liquid mixture consisting of
tiny particles (colloids) suspended in a
liquid.
Emulsion consists of a liquid 223
suspended in a liquid e.g. oil and water.

Properties of colloids

Colloidal particles are smaller than

the opening of the filter paper but
larger than the openings in the
membrane.
Colloids have a larger surface area
which facilitates adsorption.

224

Properties of suspensions

Consists of an insoluble substance

dispersed in a liquid.
Are heterogenous.
Are not clear.
Settle.
Do not pass through filter paper.
Do not pass through membranes.
225

Properties of Emulsions

They are heterogenous.

They do not pass through a piece
of filter paper or any membrane.
They are not clear.

226

Special properties of
solution
1. Effect of solute on b.p and f.p

A nonvolatile dissolved in a
solvent results in a higher
b.p(raises the b.p of the
substance) and a lowers f.p of the
solvent. E.g. salt and water
solution has high b.p (>100 oc)
and lower f.p (<0 oc).
227

2. Surface tension

This is the force that causes the surface

of liquid to contract.
Surface tension of water is greater than
most of the liquids.
It is responsible for the formation of
drops of water on a greasy or oily
surface.
In some medications, surface active
agent called surfactant is used to
lower the surface tension of the liquid
so that it spreads rapidly over the
228
tissues rather than collecting in the

3. Viscosity

Viscosity is a measure of
resistance to flow.
Some liquids will flow readily (e.g.
water with viscosity of 1.00) and
others do not.
Blood has a viscosity more than
water to accommodate exchange
of materials.
229

4. Diffusion (passive
transport)

Process whereby particles of substances

move from a region(an area) of high
concentration to a region of less
concentration.
It occurs in gases and fluids.
In the body it is evident during loss of
perspiration (moisture flows from the skin
to the air).
It occurs across alveolar membrane of the
lungs that separate the carbon dioxide
-rich blood from oxygen rich air.
230

5. Osmosis

Osmosis is diffusion of water (solvent)

through a partially permeable
membrane from a weaker
solution(dilute) to stronger
one(concentrated).
Its application can be found by the
dying of sailors at sea out of
dehydration if they drink salty sea
water. In that case, the water diffuses
out of the tissues because of higher
concentration of salts in the sea water
231
than the body fluids.

6. Osmotic pressure

Pressure due to the movement of

water by the process of osmosis.
It is important in the regulation of
fluid and electrolyte balance in the
body.

232

7. Reverse osmosis

It is the diffusion of water through a

series of very fine membranes which
allow only water molecules to pass
through while retaining the solute
particles and bacteria.
The process is used for the
desalination of sea water.
Occurs when the pressure greater than
the osmotic pressure is applied to the
233

Isotonic solution

Two solutions with the same solute

concentration.
Example: normal concentration of
salt in the blood is equal to 0.9%
NaCl solution known as
physiologic saline solution.

234

Isotonic solution cont

When red blood cell is placed in

physiologic saline solution no osmosis
will occur, the water will only be moving
from one side to another.
Physiologic saline solution is
administered for patients that are
dehydrated, patients that have lost
considerable fluid, as in the case of
hemorrhage and finally to prevent postoperative shock.
235

Hypotonic solution

Contains a lower solute

concentration than that of another
solution.
Pure water and tap water are
hypotonic as compared to blood.
Hemolysis (bursting of red blood
cell) results when the red blood
cell is put in a hypotonic solution
due to the process of osmosis.
236

Hypertonic solution

Contains a higher solute concentration

than that of another solute. E.g. 5%
NaCl solution or 10% glucose are
hypertonic in comparison to blood.pg
175.
When the red blood cell is placed in the
hypertonic solution, osmosis will take
place with the water moving out of the
cell resulting in plasmolysis.
237

238

Dialysis

Dialysis is the separation of solute

particles from colloidal particles by
a means of semipermeable
membrane.
Recall: solute particles can pass
through semipermeable membrane
and colloidal particles cannot (are
retained).
239

Hemodialysis

Hemodialysis refers to the removal

of soluble waste products from the
blood stream by means of a
membrane.

240

Artificial kidney machine

This is the machine that applies the

concept of hemodialysis in purification
of the blood.
The artificial kidney machine consists of
a long cellophane or plastic tube
wrapped around itself to form a coil and
immersed in a temperature controlled
solution whose chemical composition is
carefully regulated according to the
needs of a patient.
241

Artificial kidney machine

cont

Soluble particles can diffuse through

dialyzing membranes whereas the blood
cells and the plasma proteins cannot.
The cellophane acts as the membrane.
The patients blood is pumped through
the coil, and the soluble end-products of
protein catabolism, water and
exogenous poisons are removed from
the blood.
Problems associated with the renal
excretion can be addressed by 242
the
kidney machine in that manner.

Assignment
1. Define an antidote.
2. What are the functions of an
antidote? Give an example.
3. Give two uses of carbondioxide.
4. What are the precautions to be
taken during the administration
of carbondioxide?
243

Assignment cont
5. What are the medical importance of the
following: CaCO3, Bicarbonates and
MgCO3
6. What are the causes of temporary and
permanent hardness of water?
7. Discuss the following methods of
removal of hardness: Addition of Sodium
carbonate and Zeolite method.
8.
Discuss the following methods of water
purification: Chlorination, Aeration and
Deionization.
244

Assignment cont

Question 9
What is haemodialysis?

Outline two ways kidneys are

important to human body
Describe the operation of kidney
dialysis machine
245

UNIT 5
ORGANIC CHEMISTRY

246

ORGANIC CHEMISTRY

Definition: chemistry of carbon

containing compounds.
Examples:
Plants & Animals; carbohydrates,
fats, proteins, hormones, enzymes
e.t.c.
Others; perfumes, dyes, nylon,
rayon, cotton e.t.c.
247

Properties of Organic
compounds

See table 14-9, page 239,

Lehman and Sackheim, 8th
edition.

248

Hydrocarbons

Hydrocarbons are compounds that

ONLY contain carbon and
hydrogen atoms.
Examples; methane, ethane ,
ethene, propane, pentene
They can be classified as
saturated and unsaturated
depending on the bond types that
are present within the molecules.
249

Saturated hydrocarbons

Saturated hydrocarbons have a single

covalent bond between the carbon
atoms.
Alkanes are saturated hydrocarbons.
Examples; methane(CH4), ethane(C2H6),
propane(C3H8).
See table 15-1, page 249, for
Alkanes (Lehman and Sackheim, 8th
edition).
250

Hydrocarbons
Alkanes
H

C
H

Alkenes

Alkynes

C
C

C
C

C
C
H

Aromatics/Arenes
H

H
H

C
C

C
C

C
C

H
H

Alkanes

They all obey the general molecular

formula: CnH2n+2. where n is number
carbon atoms in the molecule.
Names end with suffix, -ane.
The carbon atoms are arranged in
chains (straight or branched) or in
rings.
252

Isomerism

Some of the alkanes have the same

molecular formula but different
structural formula . Such
compounds are called isomers.
H
H
H
H
H
Isomers of Pentane: H1. C C C C C H
H

2. -C-C-CCC

3.
253

Reactions of Alkanes
1. Combustion
Alkanes react with air/O to give CO and Water.
2
2
CH4 + 2O2
CO2 +2H2O + Energy
2. Substitution/halogenation
Alkanes react with halogens by substitution of hydrogen
by halogens
i.e. CH4 + Cl2
CH3Cl (Chloro-methane)
CH2Cl2 (Dichloro-methane/methylene
chloride)
CHCl3 (chloroform / trichloro methane)
CCl4 (tetrachloro-methane)

254

Physical Properties of
saturated compounds
(Alkanes)

1st four members are; gases (C1 C4)

- Colourless
- Odourless
Next 12 members are(C5 C16) are;
- liquid
- No colour
- benzene like smell
255

Cont

After C16(Higher Alkanes) are;

- Solids
- no colour
- no
odour/smell
All hydrocarbons (saturated) are
insoluble in water BUT dissolves
in organic solvents like ether,
acetone, carbon tetrachloride
256
e.t.c.

Uses of Saturated
Hydrocarbons
METHANE (Natural gas); - used for
heating and cooking purposes in the
Labs and home.
(C C );
5
16
- mineral oil(liquid paraffin) a mixture of
liquid saturated hydrocarbons used in
hospitals for lubricating purposes.
- lubricates catheters and surgical
instruments.
. used as laxative.
. used as an ingredient in ointment
257

Cont

Solid Hydrocarbons (>C16);

- used to raise the melting point of

ointments (stiffening agent).
- as an ingredient in dental wax.
- used in physiotherapy for inflamed
joints.

258

Unsaturated Hydrocarbons
Alkenes (double bond)
Alkynes (triple bond)
Cycloalkenes
Haloalkanes
Note: Haloalkanes and
Cycloalkenes are known as
Aromatics (Benzene rings with
multiple bonds).

259

Alkenes

Have a double bond

e.g. Ethene
C C
Names end with suffix -ene.
General formula; CnH2n
260

Cont of alkenes
Alkenes with double bonds are known as
diene and those with triple bonds
triene.
Examples of diene;
1,3-butadiene CH2 CH-CH CH2

It used in the manufacture of

automobile tyres and leukotriene
involved in the bodys allergic
responses.
261

Alkynes
Alkynes are hydrocarbons that contain a
carboncarbon triple bond.
e.g. Ethyne
-C
C Names end with suffix -yne.
General formula; C H
n 2n-2

They are rare and do not normally occur

in the human body.

262

Naming of Alkynes

Just like the alkenes, they are named with triple

bond having the smallest number or being
prioritized. Examples;
HC CH (Ethyne)
CH3CH2C CH

1-Butyne (ethylacetylene)

CH3CH2C CCH3
2-Pentyne (ethylmethylacetylene)

OH
CH3CH2CHC CH
(1-Pentyn-3-ol)

263

Reactions of Alkenes &

Alkynes
1. Combustion
Alkenes react with air/O to give
2
CO2 and Water.e.g
Ethene + oxygen
carbon
dioxide + water and energy.
C2H4 + 2O2
CO2 +2H2O +
Energy

.
264

2.Hydrogenation
Hydrogenation is the addition of
hydrogen to a compound.
E.g alkene + hydrogen
alkane

As for fats and oils, oils are more

saturated and therefore are
hydrogenated to produce fats .
This can be used to make
margarine.
i.e. Oils + H2
Fats 265

3. Halogenation

266

4.Hydro-halogenation

Hydro-halogenation is the addition of HCl,

HBr or HI to the double bond to form a
haloalkane.
The reaction follows Markovnikov rule,
which states that the hydrogen ion of the
acid is attached to the carbon with a
greater number of hydrogens.

267

5. Hydration

Hydration is the addition of water

to the double bond to form an
alcohol.
E.g alkene + water
ethanol

268

6. Oxidation
(combustion)

Oxidation of the carbon carbon

double bond gives glycols, which
are compounds containing two
hydroxyl groups:

269

Test for unsaturation

Alkenes react with aqueous

bromine (bromine water) by
addition reaction and causes the
bromine to turn from red to
colorless, or ( is decolourised).
This reaction can be used to test
for unsaturation of any organic
compound.
270

Uses of Alkenes & Alkynes

.
.

Ethene & Propene are used in;

plastic manufacturing(polythene
bags and polypropene bags)
Used by surgeons as anesthetics.
Ethene can be used to control
ripening of fruits.

271

Uses of Alkene & Alkyne

cont
.

Alkenes have the vinyl group, -C =

C- but the vinyl chloride, -C = C- is
used in the manufacture of
products like floor tiles, rain coats,
fabrics e.t.c. It is most importantly
used in the manufacture of
polyvinyl chloride (PVC), a plastic.
272

Uses of Alkynes

.
.
.
.

Ethyne is used in the manufacture of

plastics.
Acetylene is used for the;
synthetic rubber
synthetic fibres
also as anesthetic
For manufacture of oxyacetylene flame
for cutting and welding (temp >2500oC)
Control ripening of fruits.
273

Cycloalkanes

These are alkanes or hydrocarbons

which are cyclic in structure.
Their general formula is CnH2n.

The simplest members of this class

consist of a single, unsubstituted
carbon
ring, and these form a homologous
series similar to the unbranched
274
alkanes.

Cycloalkanes

CH2
Examples
Cyclopropane, C3HH
CH2
6,2C

Cyclopentane, C5H10,

Cyclobutane, C4H8

Cyclohexane, C6H12

275

Cyclopropane
Uses - General anesthetic
(Remember; Nitrous oxide is the
best anesthetic)
Disadvantages
cause muscular contraction
- very reactive and explosive
(shaking causes it to explode and
therefore need to be transported in
special apparatus)

276

Haloalkanes.

Haloalkanes are hydrocarbons with a

single covalent bond and an
additional halogen member. E.g.
Chloromethane

277

Uses and characteristics

Haloalkanes
1.

-.
-.

-.

Halothane
Non flammable
Non irritating to the respiratory
tract
Can be given alone or combines
with nitrous oxide(N2O) to patients
during surgery of all types and with
muscle relaxants to produce
general anesthetic effect. 278

2. Ethylchloride-C2H5Cl

Highly volatile and produces a very

cold temperature used as a local
anesthetic. It makes the area dead
to sensation (operates very fast).

279

3. Freon-12
dichlorodifluoromethane

Used in aerosol containers and in

refrigeration and air conditioning
units

280

4. Teflon-(C2F4)n

Polymer used for coating material

for cooking utensils.

281

5. PVC

Polymer for making plastic

containers and pipes for plumbing

282

6. Chloral hydrate

Induces sleep and prevents

convulsions e.g. fits
It is used in veterinary medicine as
a narcotic and anesthetic for
cattle, horses and poultry.
283

Naming Hydrocarbons
(nomenclature)

IUPAC

Drawing structures: its all good

H
C

2-butene
H
H

H3C
H

H3C CH CH CH3

C
H

CH
H3C
H3C

CH

CH3

CH3
CH3

This is called the

condensed structure On a test, choose a
method that shows all
CH3CH=CHCH3
Hs
Using brackets can also shorten some formulas:
CH3(CH2)2CH3 vs. CH3CH2CH2CH3

Background: formulas for HCs

Alkanes= CnH2n+2, enes= CnH2n, ynes= CnH2n-2

Remember enes, then think of what would
happen if bond was single or triple instead.
Provides some useful information (e.g. for
compositional analysis, or to check work)
Cannot always tell hydrocarbon type based on
numbers (e.g. propyne vs. propadiene)
Q - how many hydrogens in each of these:
6 carbon alkane
14
Alkene: C22H
44
H3C
CH3
8 (2x5 - 2 = 10 - 2)

Naming: Common vs. IUPAC

Common names used in the 1800s are still

used for some compounds today:
O
C
H

OH

Formic acid
H

Acetylene
O
C
H3C

Acetone

CH3

IUPAC
The International Union of Pure and
Applied Chemistry (IUPAC) was
established in 1900s
Frequent revisions to nomenclature
Systematic method allows an infinite
number of compounds to be named
given a few rules

288

Basic names of hydrocarbons

Hydrocarbon names are based on: 1) class 2)

# of C, 3) side chain type and 4) position
1) name will end in -ane, -ene, or -yne
2) the number of carbons is given by a Prefix
1 meth- 2 eth- 3 prop- 4 but- 5 pent6 hex- 7 hept- 8 oct- 9 non- 10 dec all end in -ene, E.g. a 6 C alkene is hexene
Q - What names would be given to these:
7C, 9C alkane
2C, 4C alkyne heptane, nonane
1C, 3C alkene ethyne, butyne
does not exist, propene

Mnemonic for first four prefixes

First four prefixes

MethEthPropBut-

Monkeys
Eat
Peeled
Bananas

Other prefixes

Pent-

Oct Dec Hex-, Hept-, Non-

Numbering carbons
Q- draw pentene
A- Wheres the bond? H3C
5
1
We number C atoms

1-pentene

4
2

2
4

1
5

Thus, naming compounds with multiple bonds

is more complex than previously indicated
Only if 2+ possibilities exist, are #s needed
Always give double bond the lowest number
Q - Name these
H
C2H4
H3C
C
2-butene
C
CH3
Ethene
H
H3C
CH3 3-nonyne

Multiple multiple bonds

H3C

CH3 2,3-

H3C

2,4,6-nonatriyne

heptadiene
CH
2

CH3

Give 1st bond (1st point of difference) lowest #

include di, tri, tetra, penta, etc. before ene/yne
Comma between #s, hyphen between #-letter
You do not need to know ene + yne
H
H 2-butyne
HC C CH2

H2C

CH

1,2,4-pentatriene
CH3CH2CH2CH=C=CH2 1,2-hexadiene
H

Cyclic structures

Cyclic structures are

circular
Have cyclo in name

C
C

H
C

H
H

cyclopentane
Q- Draw these (note: carbons in a double bond
should be consecutive- 1 and 2, 5 and 6, etc.):
H
H

H2C

CH2

HC

CH

H
C

C
C
H

C
C
H

CH2
H2C

CH2

cyclobutene 1,3-cyclopentadiene cyclopropane

Naming side chains

C H3
CH

C H3
H3C
CH
Names are made up
of: side chains, root
2,3-dimethylpentane
CH
C H3
Root is the longest possible HC chain
Must contain multiple bonds if present
Add -yl to get name of side chain
H3C
CH3
Common side chains include:
CH
CH3- methyl
CH3CH2- ethyl
*
CH3CH2CH2- propyl (CH3)2CH-isopropyl

iso (branched) is not an IUPAC convention

Br- (bromo), Cl- (chloro), F- (fluoro), I- (iodo)

Naming side chains

Example: use the rules on the
bottom of slide
CH2
CH3 CH2 C

CH2 CH3
CH2 C

CH3

CH3

Rule 1: choose the correct ending

ene

Naming side chains

CH2
CH3 CH2 C

CH2 CH3
CH2 C

CH3

CH3

Rule 2: longest carbon chain

ene

Naming side chains

CH2
CH3 CH2 C

CH2 CH3
CH2 C

CH3

CH3

Rule 3: attach prefix (according to # of C)

1-hexene
ene

Naming side chains

CH2
CH3 CH2 C

CH2 CH3
CH2 C

CH3

CH3

Rule 4: Assign numbers to each carbon

1-hexene

Naming side chains

CH2

CH2 CH3

CH3 CH2 C

CH2 C
3

CH3

CH3

Rule 4: Assign numbers to each carbon

1-hexene

Naming side chains

ethyl

CH2

CH2 CH3

CH3 CH2 C

CH2 C

CH3

meth
yl
CH3
meth
yl chains
Rule 5: Determine name for side
2

1-hexene

Naming side chains

ethyl

CH2

CH2 CH3

CH3 CH2 C

CH2 C

CH3

meth
yl
CH3
meth
yl
Rule 6: attach name of branches
2

2-ethyl-4-methyl-4-methyl-1-hexene
1-hexene

Naming side chains

ethyl

CH2

CH2 CH3

CH3 CH2 C

CH2 C

CH3

meth
yl
CH3
meth
yl
Rule 7: list alphabetically
2

2-ethyl-4-methyl-4-methyl-1-hexene
1-hexene

Naming side chains

ethyl

CH2

CH2 CH3

CH3 CH2 C

CH2 C

CH3

meth
yl
CH3
meth
yl
Rule 8,9: group similar branches
2

2-ethyl-4-methyl-4-methyl-1-hexene
1-hexene

Naming side chains

ethyl

CH2

CH2 CH3

CH3 CH2 C

CH2 C

CH3

meth
yl
CH3
meth
yl
Rule 8,9: group similar branches
2

2-ethyl-4,4-dimethyl-1-hexene

Naming side chains

Name the following structures
H3C

H3C

CH2
CH CH3

H2C

CH2

CH CH CH2 CH3
H3C

CH3

3-methylhexane

CH2 CH2 CH3

CH
CH3

4-ethyl-2,3-dimethylheptane

CH3

CH3

CH3

CH3 CH2 CH CH CH CH2 CH CH3

CH2 CH3

5-ethyl-2,4,6-trimethyloctane

Naming side chains

Name the structures below
CH3
H3C

CH

CH2
CH
CH3

H2C

H3C

H3C

3-ethyl-2-methylpentane

CH3

CH3

3-ethyl-1,5,5trimethylcyclohexene
CH3

More practice
Br

4-bromo-7-methyl-2-nonene

Br

2,5-dibromo-6-chloro-1,3-cycloheptadiene

Br
Cl

CH3
H3C

C
CH3

CH2 C
F

CH CH CH CH3

5-fluoro-7,7-dimethyl-2,4-octadiene

More practice questions.

309

Functional Groups

Functional groups
All organic compounds are grouped into
classes based on characteristic features
called functional groups.
Functional groups are special group of atoms in
molecules that are responsible for their
characteristic chemical properties. Or
is an atom or a group of atoms within a
molecule that serves as a site of chemical
reactivity.
they dictate the physical, chemical and
other

Examples of functional
groups
-OH, Alcohol (hydroxyl group)
-O-, Ether
-CHO, Aldehyde
-CO-, Ketone
-COOH, Carboxylic acid
- NH , Amine
2
-CONH , Amide
2
-COO, Ester
(check last page of the text book)

312

Alcohols

Functional group, -OH,(hydroxyl

group).
General formula, R-OH.(R-carbon
chain) or CnH2n+1OH.
Names end with, -ol.
Examples; CH3OH (Methanol)
C2H5OH (Ethanol)
313

Nomenclature of alcohols

An alcohol can be named as an alkyl alcohol,

usually for small alkyl groups e.g. methyl
alcohol and ethyl alcohol or using IUPAC
nomenclature.
The longest carbon chain bearing the -OH
group is used as the parent; the last -e from
this alkane is replaced by an -ol to obtain the
root name. The longest chain is numbered
starting from the end nearest to the -OH
group, and the position of the -OH group is
numbered. Cyclic alcohols have the 314
prefix

Types of alcohol

Alcohol can be classified into four

types;
1. Monohydric/monohydroxy
alcohol
2. Dihydric
3. Trihydric
4. Polyhydric
315

Monohydric alcohols
Have only one OH group.
Examples;
CH3OH (methanol)

C2H5OH (ethanol)

316

Classes of monohydric
alcohols

Monohydric alcohols are usually

classified as primary (1o),
secondary (2o) or tertiary (3o)
depending on the position of OH
group on the chain.

317

Classes of monohydric
alcohols
(i) Primary alcohols (1o)
They have a hydroxyl group attached
to a carbon that is bonded to just one
other carbon atom.
e.g: Propyl alcohol and 2methylpropyl alcohol.

318

(ii) Secondary alcohols

(2o)

Secondary alcohols have a hydroxyl

group attached to a carbon that is
bonded to two other carbon atoms.
The name for secondary alcohol starts
with Iso- e.g Isopropanol(2-Propanol)
and Iso butanol(2-butanol).

319

(iii) Tertiary alcohols (3o

)

Tertiary alcohols have a hydroxyl

group attached to a carbon that is
bonded to three other carbon atoms.
e.g 2-Methyl-2-propanol or tertbutanol or tert-butyl alcohol
Note: Normal butyl alcohol has a
straight chain and a tertiary butyl
alcohol is branching

320

Exercise
Draw structures of the following
alcohols
1. 1-Bromo-3-methyl-2-butanol
2. 1-Chloro-3-pentanol
3. 1-Propylcyclopentanol

321

Dihydric alcohols

Have hydroxyl group (-OH) attached to

two different carbon atoms . They are
called glycols.
Examples;
CH2OHCH2OH (ethylene glycol) or
(1,2-ethanediol)

322

Trihydric alcohols
Have three hydroxyl groups attached
to three different carbon atoms.
Examples;
CH2OHCH2OHCH2OH
(glycerol/glycerin)
or (1,2,3-propanetriol)

323

Polyhydric alcohols
More than three hydroxyl groups
attached to the carbon atoms.
Examples; - Mannitol ( sorbitol) or
Hexane-1,2,3,4,5,6-hexol (used for the
treatment of malignant brain tumors)
-Xylitol
-Carbohydrates

324

Properties of alcohol
1.

2.
3.
4.
5.

They do not ionise. Therefore, have

slower reactions than inorganic bases
containing hydroxide ion (-OH)
Solutions of alcohols are non
electrolytes
They react with acids to form Esters
They are polar compounds (dissolve in
water)
Solubility decreases as the carbon chain
increases. Thus small alcohols are
miscible with water, but solubility
decreases as the size of the alkyl group
increases.

Uses of alcohol (mostly

medicinal)

1. Ethyl alcohol

(ethanol)

Ethanol is clinically used for different

purposes:It is referred to as hospital
alcohol .Commonly known as grain
alcohol(prepared by fermentation of
sucrose)
Can denature protein and therefore
used as an antiseptic and antimicrobial agent in medicine
Used for sponge baths to reduce fever in
patients.
327

Ethyl alcohol uses

Can be mixed with methanol to

make methylated spirits
(Meths)or surgical spirits
Used as a solvent for many organic
substances(polar molecules).
It used as an antidote for ethylene
glycol and methyl poisoning.
328

2. Isopropyl alcohol

Commonly used as a rubbing

alcohol (coz it is not absorbed
through the skin) and as an
astringent. (Subst that constrict/shrink body
tissues)

Toxic and should not be taken

internally

3. Ethylene glycol

Used in the preparations to

moisten the skin
Extremely toxic as it is oxidised to
oxalic acid in the liver
Used as a permanent antifreeze in
car radiators
Used as a raw material for dacron
(polymer)

4.Glycerol

It is a constituent of fats in the body

It is a by-product of the manufacture of
soap.
Used in preparations of cosmetics and
hand lotions
Used in the laboratories as a lubricant
for rubber tubing and stoppers.
Can be mixed with nitric acid to make
nitroglycerin which is used to treat angina
331
and heart pain

5. menthol

It is a cyclic alcohol, which has a

cooling , refreshing feeling when
rubbed on the skin.
It is frequently used as an
ingredient in cosmetics and
shaving lotions
It is also used in cough drops and
nasal sprays.
332

Physiological effects of
Alcohol

Methanol is extremely toxic/

poisonous ( one sip ~15 ml is can
cause permanent blindness by
destruction of optic nerve and ~30
ml can cause death.
Depresses the CNS and can remove
an individuals normal inhibitions
(Note: it is not a stimulant)
Can cause the destruction of the liver
(Cirrhosis)

Effects of Alcohol cont

Alcohol is probably the most common, and legal, CNS

depressant. It is socially acceptable for occasional
alcohol taking.
Yet, it is illegal, in most parts of the world, for a person
to operate vehicles (a car or an airplane) under the
influence of alcohol.
Symptoms of alcohol overdose are similar to those of
other CNS depressants. These include to ataxia, slurred
speech, altered perception, coma and respiratory
failure. Death may occur if the blood alcohol level reach
0.35 mg/100 ml of blood.
Different countries, due to their social and cultural
backgrounds, have different definition and standard for
alcohol intoxication i.e. drunk. In general, alcohol
intoxication is defined by the level of alcohol in the
blood the Blood Alcohol Content (BAC).

In most of the
countries, the
threshold limit of
blood alcohol
content for drunk
driving is 0.08%
(i.e. 80 mg /100
ml of blood)
In Hong Kong,
the threshold
is 0.05% (i.e.
50 mg / 100
ml of blood)

Although taking
alcohol (ethanol) is
socially acceptable,
driving under the
influence of alcohol
is a crime in most
parts of the world.

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2

Ethers

Ethers are organic relatives of

water, where alkyl groups replace
both hydrogen atoms. Thus, ethers
have two hydrocarbons bonded to
an oxygen atom , R-O-R.

336

Ethers

Functional group: -OGeneral formula: R-O-R

General equation for the formation of
Ethers:
R-OH + OH-R
R-O-R + H2O

Alcohol + alcohol

Examples of Ethers:

H2SO4, 140O

CH3-O-CH3

and

(Dimethyl ether/methyl ether)

ether + water
CH3CH2-O-CH2CH3
(Diethyl ether/ethyl ether)

Ethyl ether (or Diethyl ether) is one of the most

importantly used ether

Nomenclature of ethers
Ethers can be symmetrical, where the
two alkyl groups are the same, or
unsymmetrical, where the two alkyl
groups are different.
Diethyl ether is symmetrical while
ethyl methyl ether is unsymmetrical.

The common name of an unsymmetrical

ether is obtained by quoting the names of
the two alkyl groups in alphabetical order
followed by the prefix ether.
338

Nomenclature of ethers

E.g CH3 O C2H5 is ethyl methyl ether

The common name for symmetrical

ether is obtained by adding di-to the
alkyl groups of the alcohols from which
it was obtained followed by ether. E.gdimethyl ether,
CH3OCH3 , from mixing two methyl
alcohols .

or Diethyl ether, C2H5 O C2H5 .

339

Nomenclature of ethers

In the IUPAC system, the prefix alkoxyfollowed by alkane name is used.

Alkoxy- means oxygen attached to an
alkyl group, e.g OCH3, is called
methoxy and OC2H5 is called
ethoxy.
E.g: CH3OCH3 is called
methoxymethane
Diethyl ether, C2H5 O C2H5 can
340 be

Nomenclature of ethers

Ethyl methyl ether , CH3 O- C2H5 is

called methoxyethane( the shorter
chain is named as an alkoxy group).
Name the following:

a).
b.
Use IUPAC and common names.
. Draw structure of :
1. 2-Methyl-2-methoxypropane 2.341

Properties of ethers

342

Properties of Diethyl ether

Has a low bp
Highly flammable
Very good solvent because it is
chemically inert (does not react with a
solute)
Due its low bp, it can be easily
extracted/removed very fast
Should not be kept in the lab for longer
times without shaking as it undergoes
oxidation

Use of Diethyl ether as an

anesthetic

It used to be a good anesthetic

because of the following
advantages and disadvantages;
Advantages:

Easy to administer
Good muscular relaxant
Little effect on the pulse rate, rate of
respiration and blood pressure

Use of Diethyl ether as an

anesthetic

Disadvantages:

Highly flammable
Irritating to the membranes of the
respiratory tract
Have the after effect of nausea
Today it is used as an inhalation
anesthetic in laboratory work.
It has been replaced by nitrous oxide
and halothane which are nonflammable.

Aldehydes and Ketones

Aldehydes and ketones

Functional groups:

Aldehydes: R-CHO

Aldehydes have an acyl group with

a hydrogen atom bonded to the
carbonyl
carbon.
The most abundant natural
aldehyde is glucose.

Aldehydes cont

The simplest aldehyde is

formaldehyde (CH O), where the
carbonyl carbon is bonded to two
hydrogen atoms.
In all other aldehydes, the
carbonyl carbon is bonded to one
hydrogen atom and one alkyl or
aryl group, e.g. acetaldehyde,
(CH CHO).
348
2

Ketones cont

Ketones: R-CO-R

Ketones have an acyl group with

another alkyl or aryl group
connected to
the carbonyl carbon.
They all have the carbonyl group:
C=O
349

Nomenclature of
aldehydes and ketones

The common names of aldehydes

are derived from the corresponding
carboxylic acids by replacing -ic acid
by -aldehyde; e.g., formic acid gives
formaldehyde, and acetic acid gives
acetaldehyde.
The simplest ketone has the
common name of acetone.
350

Nomenclature

In the IUPAC nomenclature of

aldehydes, the -e of the alkane is
replaced with -al, e.g. ethanal (the
parent alkane is ethane). Similarly,
ketones are named by replacing the -e
ending of the alkyl name with -one, e.g.
propanone (the parent alkane is
propane).

The longest chain carrying the carbonyl

group is considered the parent
351
structure.

Nomenclature

Other substituents are named

using prefixes and their positions
are indicated by numbers relative
to the carbonyl group.

352

Examples
Aldehydes

Ketones

Formaldehyde (Methanal)

Methyl acetone/Propanone (dimethyl

ketone)

Ethanal

butanone

Medically important
Aldehydes and Ketones

1. Formalin

Formalin is 40% formaldehyde, HCHO.

It is used to harden proteins, making it
insoluble in water
Used as an effective germicide for the
disinfection of excreta, rooms and
clothing
Used as an embalming fluids (i.e. to
keep dead bodies from rotting) and also
as a preservative for biological
specimen
Precaution: has irritating fumes.

2. GLUTERALDEHYDE

It is a better sterilising agent than

formaldehyde
It is microcidal against all microorganisms including spores and
many viruses.
It has no disagreeable odour as
opposed to formaldehyde and less
irritating to the eyes and the skin.

3. PARALDEHYDE

Produced by polymerasization of three

molecules of acetaldehyde.
It is non-toxic and does not depress the
heart action or respiration.
Its main use is as a hypnotic, sleeper
producer because it depresses the CNS.
It is used in the treatment of alcoholism
(drug anti-abuse).
Its main disadvantage is that it has a
disagreeable taste and unpleasant
odour.

4. GLYCERALDEHYDE

It is a component in the
metabolism of carbohydrates.

5. ACETONE (Propanone)

Note: it is a ketone.
It is a good solvent for fats and
oils.
It is frequently used in fingernail
polish and in polish remover.
It is found in small amounts in
blood and urine.
In cases of Diabetic mellitus, it is
found in large quantities in blood
and urine.

Ketosis
It is the overall accumulation of
ketone bodies in the blood.
Ketosis may occur with diabetes
mellitus in the period of starvation,
severe liver damage or in a diet
high in fats and oils and low in
carbohydrates.
360

Ketosis cont

Ketone bodies are acidic and tend

to decrease the pH of the blood
and this is called ACIDOSIS and
may lead to fatal comma.
KETONEMIA: excess accumulation
of ketone bodies in the blood.
KETONURIA: excess accumulation
of ketone bodies in the urine.
361

ESTERS

ESTERS

The functional group of an ester is

an acyl group bonded to an alkoxy
group, (-OR).
Functional group; -COOGeneral formula; R-COO-R
Esters are produced by a reaction
of an organic acid with an alcohol.
This reaction is called
esterification.

Esters cont

Esters are important as solvents,

perfumes and flavouring agents
(see table 19-1, pg 316 for
examples of these esters)
Many esters are also used
medicinally (table 19.2, pg 316)

Esters nomenclature.

The simplest members of this

family are methyl acetate
(CH3COOCH3) and ethyl acetate
(CH3COOCH2CH3).

The names of esters originate from

the names of the compounds that
are used to prepare them.
The first word of the name comes
from the alkyl group of the 365
alcohol,

Esters

e.g.

Some medical uses of

Esters
Methyl salicylate (oil of winter
green)

1.

A flavouring agent and counter irritant

Glyceride trinitrate (nitro-glycerine)

2.

Heart stimulant as it is used to dilate

coronary arteries and lower blood pressure

Ethyl-amino-benzoate (benzocaine)

3.

Local anesthetic

Amines

Amines are nitrogen-containing

compounds, where the functional group is
an amino group (-NH2).

They are organic relatives of ammonia,

where one or more of the hydrogen
atoms of ammonia are replaced by alkyl
group(s).
Thus , an amine has the general formula
RNH2, R2NH or R3N.

Amines
Amines are classified as primary (1),
secondary (2), tertiary (3) or
quaternary (4) depending on how
many alkyl groups are attached to the
N atom.
Classified as primary, secondary,
tertiary
CH3
CH3

CH3NH2 CH3NH CH3N 369

CH3

Nomenclature of amines

Aliphatic amines are named

according to the alkyl group or
groups attached to nitrogen with the
suffix -amine.

If there is more than one alkyl group

bonded to the nitrogen atom, the prefixes
di- and tri- are used to indicate the
presence of two or three alkyl groups of
the same kind.
Often the prefix amino- is used with the
370
name of the parent chain for more

Nomenclature of amines

Often the prefix amino- is used with

the name of the parent chain for more
complex amines.
If other substituents are attached to
the nitrogen atom, they are indicated
by the prefix N- before the name of
the substituents.
The simplest aromatic amine is aniline
(C6H5NH2), where nitrogen is attached
371
directly to a benzene ring.

Naming Amines
IUPAC aminoalkane
CH3CH2NH2
aminoethane
(ethylamine)

Common alkylamine

CH3NH CH3
N-methylaminomethane
NH (dimethylamine)
2

NH CH3

NH2
|
CH3CHCH3
2-aminopropane
(isopropylamine)

Aniline

N-methylaniline

Reactions of Amines

Act as weak bases in water

CH3NH2 + H2O
CH3NH3+ + OH
methylammonium
hydroxide

Neutralization with acid gives

ammonium salt
CH3NH2 + HCl
CH3NH3+ Cl
methylammonium
chloride

Amides

The functional group of an amide is

an acyl group bonded to a nitrogen
atom.
Functional group: -CO-NH2
General formula: R-CO-NH2
The simplest members of this family
are formamide (HCONH2) and
acetamide (CH3CONH2).

Amide nomenclature
Amides are named by replacing the
-oic acid or -ic acid suffix of the
parent carboxylic acids with the
suffix -amide, or by replacing the
-carboxylic acid ending with
-carboxamide.
Alkyl groups on nitrogen atoms are
named as substituents. The name of
the substituent is preceded by N-, or N, N,followed by the name(s) of the375alkyl

Amides
Derivatives of carboxylic acids
where an amino (-NH2) group
replaces the OH group.
O
O

CH3 COH

CH3 CNH2

carboxylic acid
amide
acetic acid
acetamide

Naming Amides
Alkanamide
from acid name
O

methanamide (IUPAC)
HCNH2 formamide (common)
O

propanamide (IUPAC)
CH3CH2CNH2 propionamide(common)

Naming Amides with NGroups

O

CH3CNHCH3 N-methylethanamide
(IUPAC)
N-methylacetamide (common)
O

CH3CH2CN(CH3)2
N,N-dimethylpropanamide
N,N-dimethylpropionamide

Urea

Urea is one of the most important

amides and is used in the manufacture
of barbiturates which are sedative
hypnotics
Urea is formed in the liver by a series of
complicated reactions
Urea which is diamide of carbonic acid
is the principal product of protein
metabolism and contain large quantities
of nitrogen
The body get rid of ammonia in the form
of urea

Niacinamide

Niacin, one of the vit B, is

administered as an amide
-niacinamide.

Reactions of Amides
Amides undergo
acid hydrolysis

base hydrolysis

carboxylic acid
salt of carboxylic
acid
ammonium salt
and an amine
or ammonia

Reactions of Amides
acid hydrolysis

HCl + H2O CH3COH + NH4+Cl

CH3CNH2

NaOH

CH3CO Na+ + NH3

base hydrolysis

Amides

e.g.

Carboxylic Acids

A class of organic compounds containing

the carboxyl group.
They obey the general formula CnH2n+1
COOH.

In a condensed structural formula,

a carboxyl group may be written
as -CO2H, and a carboxylic acid as
RCO2H.

Their names end with -ioc

Carboxyl group
combination of the carbonyl group
and the hydroxyl group

Nomenclature of organic
acids

The root name is based on the

longest continuous chain of carbon
atoms bearing the carboxyl group.
The -e is replaced by -oic acid

The chain is numbered starting with the

carboxyl carbon atom.

The carboxyl group takes priority over any other

functional groups as follows:
carboxylicacid>ester>amide>nitrile>aldehyde>k

etone>alcohol>amine>alkene>alkyne.
386

Carboxylic acids

Some carboxylic acids have two or

more functional groups, and such
are called polyprotic acids.
when naming such acids include
di,tri,tetra, before -oic .
Examples..
Some contain the OH apart from
the one in the carboxylic group, and
such acids are called hydroxy
387
acids. E.g

Acids

Carboxylic acids are classified as

aliphatic acids, where an alkyl
group is bonded to the carboxyl
group, and aromatic acids, where
an aryl group is bonded to the
carboxyl group.
The simplest carboxylic acids are
formic acid, (HCO2H) and acetic
acid (CH3CO2H).
388

Examples of carboxylic acids:

The carboxyl group is the parent group

of a large family of compounds
called carboxylic acid derivatives

Carboxylic acid derivatives

Name
Acid
anhydrides
Acyl
chlorides
Esters
Amides

Structure

Physical
Properties of
Carboxylic
Acids

Physical Properties of Carboxylic Acids

Carboxylic acids have a characteristic
pungent smell and sour taste
e.g.
ethanoic acid has the smell of vinegar
butanoic acid has the smell of rancid oil

Boiling Point and Melting Point

Like alcohols, molecules of carboxylic

acids are capable of forming
intermolecular hydrogen bonds with each
other
both alcohols and carboxylic acids
have relatively high b.p. and m.p.

Variations of
boiling points with
the number of
carbon atoms of
straight-chain
carboxylic acids,
alcohols,
aldehydes and
alkanes

Density

The densities of carboxylic acids

generally decrease with increasing
relative molecular masses

Only the first two members are denser

than water at 20C
due to the closer packing of the
smaller molecules in the liquid phase

Solubility
Carboxylic acids of low molecular masses
show appreciable solubilities in water
Carboxylic acids are polar and their
molecules can form strong hydrogen
bonds with water molecules

Solubility
The first four members of carboxylic
acids are miscible with water in all
proportions
When the length of the hydrocarbon
portion increases
the solubility of the carboxylic acids
in water declines

Formation of RCOOH

Oxidation of Alcohols and Aldehydes

Oxidation of Alcohols and Aldehydes

e.g.

Oxidation of Alkylbenzenes

1o and 2o alkyl groups (but not 3o alkyl

groups) directly attached to a benzene ring
are oxidized by hot alkaline KMnO4 to the
carboxyl group

Oxidation of Alkylbenzenes

e.g.

Oxidation of Alkylbenzenes
Alkylbenzenes with alkyl groups other than
methyl group are also oxidized to benzoic
acid by hot alkaline KMnO4

Formation of salts
Formation of salts by reacting with
1. Metals
2. Carbonates
3. Hydroxides

Medicinally important
acids and their
characteristics

1. Formic Acid

Colourless
Has a sharp irritating odour
Found in sting of bees, ants and
causes characteristic pain and
swelling when it is injected into the
tissues
One of the strongest organic acids

2. Acetic acid

It is formed when wine turns sour.

(4-5)% acetic acid is vinegar and it
is used to add flavour to food
The acetyl group is important in
metabolic reactions, thus used by
living cells to produce long chain
fatty acids.

3.Other acids

Acetylsalicyclic acid (Aspirin) used as

an analgesic and as an antipyretic. It is
frequently taken by people with cold to
relieve headache, muscle pain and fever
and as a blood thinner. However, it does
not remove the source of the infection or
effect cure.
Ascorbic acid (Vit C) from citrus fruits is
used in the prevention and treatment of
scurvy.
Salicyclic acid(both an acid and
alcohol)- treatment of fungal diseases
or
409

More acids

Oxalic acid- it is used to remove

stains of rust and potassium
permanganate from clothing.
Oxalate salts prevent blood
clotting by removing Ca2+ ions from
the blood.
Oxalate salts are also used in
blood analysis in the lab.
410

Citric acid

It is found in citrus fruits. Two salts

of citric acid are medically
important:
Magnesium citrate-used as
cathartic to stimulate evacuation
of bowels
Sodium citrate- used as blood
anticoagulant.
Ferri ammonium citrate- given
to
411

NITROGEN CONTAINING
ORGANIC COMPOUNDS

Amines
Amides
Amino acids

Amines
Amines are organic compounds derived from
ammonia
Functional group; -NH2
Genformula group: R-NH
2
Some of the Amines medicinally used in the
body are as follows;
Histamines
Barbiturates
Psychedelics
Nucleic acids
Amides are basic and readily form salts

Psychoactive drugs

Tranquilizers

Opiates

Depressants

Stimulants

Hallucinogens

What are dangerous drugs (DD)?

Dangerous Drugs refer to substances that pose risk of

abuse to the public.

They possess addictive properties, i.e. able to develop a

need or compulsive desire for their continued use, and
are likely to produce withdrawal symptoms upon their
discontinuation of use.

Dangerous Drugs can be roughly classified into:

1. Opiates (Morphine, Codeine, Heroin, Cocaine, etc.)
2. Depressants (Barbiturates, Benzodiazepines, etc.)
3. Stimulants (Amphetamines, Cocaine, Ecstasy, etc.)
4. Hallucinogens (Amphetamines, Cannabinoids, etc.)
5. Tranquilizers (Ketamine, Phencyclidene, etc.)

Psychoactive drugs
Affect the Central Nervous System
and alter the normal functioning
of the brain resulting in behavior
changes.

CNS

Brain

Types of Psychoactive
Drugs

Stimulants
Depressant
Narcotics s
Hallucinoge

What are Stimulants?

Stimulants are drugs
which speed up the
Central Nervous System.

How does the stimulants affect the

following?

Heart Rate

Raised

Respiration

Raised

Blood Pressure Raised

Examples of Stimulants

CAFFEINE

AMPHETAMINES

METHAMPHETAMINES

COCAINE

What are Depressants?

Depressants slow down
the Central Nervous
System.

Depressants have the

following effects:
Heart Rate Lowers
Respiration Lowers
Blood Pressure Lowers

Examples of Depressants

SEDATIVES
TRANQUILIZERS

Questions to answer:

1. What are Narcotics?

2. How might they affect the body?
Solutions:
1. Narcotics are drugs made from opium.
2. They may cause a stupor or sleep and can
result in a coma or death.

1. What are hallucinogens?

2. How do they affect the body?
3. Give 2 examples of hallucinogens.

Solutions
1. and 2. Sorry thats your assignment
3. Examples of hallucinogens are:
1.
Phencyclidine (PCP)
2.
Lysergic Acid Diethylamide (LSD)

Natural
narcotics:
Opium
Morphine
Codeine

Opiates

Semi-synthetic
narcotics:
Heroin
Hydromorphine

Synthetic
narcotics:
Methadone
Meperidine

Opium cont

The physiological properties of

opium is originated from the
phenanthrene chemicals that it
contains.
These include morphine and
codeine. Morphine is the most
potent of all and constitutes 8 to
19% of the overall amount of airdried opium.

HO

1
11

Morphine

12

13

Morphine is a powerful nacrotic that

produces a physiological condition known as HO
nacrosis a stuporous state resembling sleep
and characterized by the loss of sensation.
Regular use of opioids causes the brain to
create new non-functional pseudo receptors
for the opioids. These pseudo-receptors have
even stronger binding properties than the
functional receptors. Upon the withdrawal of
the regular dose of opioids, the brain sorts to
fill these receptors by endorphines. However,
most of the brain-generated endorphines end
up binding to the pseudo-receptors instead of
the functional opioid-receptors. This leads to
the occurrence of the withdrawal symptoms

16

15
14

10
9

H
8

6
7

Morphine

Codeine
(Methylmorphine)

Brief note

MeO

Codeine is another natural occurring

HO
opiate produced by opium poppy. Codeine
is a weaker narcotic than morphine and
heroin.
Codeine has a much wider medicinal use
than morphine.
It is being used as an analgesic and
antidiarrheal drug.
Codeine is usually marketed together with
other non-opiate drugs: Co-codamol
(Tylenol-3) is codeine plus paracetamol;
Co-codaprin is codeine plus aspirin.

Codeine

List a medical use for the each

of the narcotic drugs listed
below

Morphine
Codeine

RELIEVE PAIN

STOP
COUGHING

Barbiturates

1.
2.

Have sedative and sleep producing

properties (hypnotic) when administered in
therapeutic doses
Large amounts results in confusion, mental
sluggishness, loss of emotional control and
may induce a comma e.g;
Phenobarbital drug(long acting, 10-12 hrs)
Secobarbital & pentabarbital (short acting 34 hrs)

3.

Phenobarbital is used as an
anticonvulsant agent in the treatment
of epilepsy

Hallucinogens
/Psychedelics

Produce visions
Used in the treatment of terminal
cancer patients because it reduces
the pain and awareness
Causes dilation of the pupils
Increases the body temperature

WHAT TYPE OF
PSYCHOACTIVE DRUGS ARE
THE FOLLOWING?
Caffeine
Alcohol
Marijuana
Sleeping Pills
Morphine
Heroine
Nicotine
Amphetamines

STIMULANT
DEPRESSANT
HALLUCINOGEN
DEPRESSANT
NARCOTIC
NARCOTIC
STIMULANT
STIMULANT

Histamines

Are hormones normally released in

small amounts
Stimulates the production of
gastric juice
Enlarges the capillaries to increase
blood flow
Large amounts are released during
shock and allergy

Nucleic acids

They occur in the nucleus in and

cytoplasm of all living cells and are
responsible for the transfer of genetic
information and synthesis of proteins
by the cells.
Are of two types: RNA and DNA
RNA concerned with protein synthesis
DNA responsible for transfer of
genetic information.

Amino-acids
Contains a basic amino group and an acid
carbonyl group.
NH2------------------------COOH

(basic)

(acidic)

Amino acids are the building block of

protein formed by complete hydrolysis of
proteins.
There are about 20 kinds of amino acids.
Your cells make thousands of different
proteins. They do so by stringing amino
acids together in particular orders. The
instructions for doing this comes from your

A-acids

General formula
R-CH-COOH
NH2

437

a-acids cont

Examples:

CH3COOH + NH4

CH2COOH

NH2
(Glycin)
Amino acids exhibit both acidic and basic
properties. They react with both bases and
acids (i.e. amphoteric)
Proteins are polymers of alpha amino acids
e.g. glycol
Alpha
CH2COOH
NH2

Essential and Nonessential amino acids

Essential amino acids are those the
body cannot synthesize and must be
supplied from the food consumed.
These are called the nutritionally
essential amino acids.
Non-essential amino acids are those
the body can synthesize.
Note: Not all synthesized amino acids
are needed by the body.

Physiological importance
of amino acids

Due to their amphoteric nature,

they act as buffers in the blood
(i.e. they can act with the entire
acids and bases to prevent excess
of either)
(Recall : the buffer systems
studied in inorganic chemistry)

Aromatic and Heterocyclic

cmpds

Aromatic compounds

These are compounds whose

bonding has features similar to
those of benzene

Heterocyclic compounds

Cyclic compounds that have one or more of

atoms other than carbon, e.g. N,O or S (heteroatoms), in their rings are called heterocyclic
compounds or heterocycles.

It can be a 5 or 6 membered ring

Examples of heterocyclic compounds are:

1.

2.

3.
4.

5.

Pyrole (It is found in haemoglobin, chlorophyll,

bilirubin
(found in bile in the body) and vit B12.
Pyrimidine (found in the nucleus, proteins and
barbiturates)
Thiazole (found in penicillin, vit B1)
Pyridine (found in Niacin (B-Complex), vit B6, alkaloids
e.g. nicotine
Purine (found in caffeine, nucleic acids and in DNA and
RNA)

Examples of aromatic
compounds
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.

Benzene
Toluene
Xylene
Benzepyrine
Phenanthrene
Naphthalene
Anthracene

1. Benzene
Benzene (C6H6) is the simplest aromatic hydrocarbon (or
arene).
Benzene has four degrees of unsaturation, making it a highly
unsaturated hydrocarbon.
Whereas unsaturated hydrocarbons such as alkenes,
alkynes and dienes readily undergo addition reactions,
benzene does not.

The resonance description of benzene consists of two

equivalent Lewis structures, each with three double bonds
that alternate with three single bonds.

Benzene and Aromatic Compounds

Nomenclature of Benzene Derivatives
To name a benzene ring with one substituent, name the
substituent and add the word benzene.

Many monosubstituted benzenes have common names.

Properties of Benzene
Colourless
Has gasoline like odour
Insoluble in water but soluble in alcohol
and ether
Toxic when ingested, inhaled
Decreases the amount of rbc and wbc
counts
Mildly carcinogic (cancer causing).
Therefore discontinued use in labs.
(Toluene is preferred)

2. Toluene

Colourless and benzene like

Insoluble in water but soluble in
alcohol and ether
Less toxic in comparison to
benzene
Used as a preservative for urine
specimen
Used in preparation of dyes and
explosives.

Importance of Toluene

Good solvent
Used as a preservative for urine
specimens
Used in the manufacture of TNT
(Tri-Nitro-Toluene) which is
explosive
An ingredient in air plane glue
when sniffed can produce blurred
vision

3. Xylene

Derived from benzene

Good solvents for oils
Used for cleaning the lenses of
microscopes

Assignment

What are the medicinal

importance of the following
aromatic compounds?
1.
2.
3.
4.

Benzepyrine
Phenanthrene
Naphthalene
Anthracene

BIO-CHEMISTRY

Definition

The study of chemical composition

of biological molecules and their
metabolism

Carbohydrates
Carbohydrates are a class of
compounds that are mainly found in
plants, where they make about 75% of
the plant material. These compounds
include:

i.
ii.
iii.
iv.
v.
vi.

Glucose
Fructose
Maltose
Starch
Cellulose
Sucrose

Classification of
Carbohydrates

1.
2.
3.

Classification according to the

size of the molecule
Monosaccharides
Disaccharides
Polysaccharides

Monosaccharides

1.
2.
3.
4.

Cannot be broken into simpler units

upon hydrolysis
Also called simple sugars
Can further be classified by the
number of carbons in the molecule:
3 carbons Triose
4 carbons tetrose
5 carbons pentose
6 carbons - hexose

Monosaccharides cont

1.
2.
3.

The most common

Monosaccharides are the
hexoses:
Glucose
Galactose
Fructose

1. Glucose

Most important of the Monosaccharides

It is an aldohexose (a Monosaccharide with an aldehyde
group and six carbon atoms)
Commonly known as blood sugar because it is the
most abundant carbohydrate in the blood
Also known as grape sugar or dextrose
Found in grape fruits juices, saps of plants and in the
blood and tissues of animals
It is produced commercially by hydrolysis of
polysaccharides e.g. starch
Requires no digestion and therefore, may be taken
intravenously to patients who cannot take food by
mouth

Physiological importance of
Glucose
1.

It is the immediate source of energy for

cellular reactions such as:

2.

Tissue synthesis and repair

Muscle contraction
Nerve transmission

It is often given intravenously to

patients suffering from the major
trauma

Note: The level of glucose in the blood of a

normal adult is fairly constant (70 100 mg
per 100ml of blood) although it rises after
each meal and falls during period of fasting.

Test for glucose in urine

Glucose is found in urine of patients

suffering from diabetes mellitus (that
is an indication of the disease)
May also show up in urine during
extreme excitement.
The presence of glucose in urine is
known as glycosuria
Benedicts solution is widely used for
the detection of reducing sugars
(Glucose is a reducing sugar)

Test using Benedicts

solution

Benedicts solution contains an alkaline

solution of copper (II) Sulphate, CuSO4.
This blue reagent solution is mixed with
unknown solution and heated.
If a reducing sugar is present, the Cu2+
ions will be reduced to Cu+ ions.
The blue solution of the reagent will be
changed into brick red precipitate of
copper (I) oxide, Cu2O.

Glucose test cont

All monosaccharides will yield a positive Benedicts
test. The lab tests for the presence of glucose are
interpreted as below:

Colour

Yellow
Orange
Red

Notation % glucose in
urine
++
0.1 0.5
+++
0.5 1.5
++++
>1.5

Other tests
Clini-test tablet

1.

The clini-test tablet contains the oxidizing

agent Cu2+ ions, which are reduced to Cu+
ions.
The glucose is oxidized to gluconic acid.

Tollens reagent

2.

The Tollens reagent contains the oxidizing

agent Ag+ ions
In this reaction glucose is oxidised to
gluconic acid and the Ag+ ions are
reduced to Ag metal, which appears as a
shiny mirror in the test tube.

Chemical properties of
Glucose

Reactions of Aldehydes and

Ketones

oxidation

reduction

1) Aldehydes are easily oxidized, ketones are not.

2) Aldehydes are more reactive in nucleophilic
additions than ketones.

Aldehyde / Ketone Oxidations

Aldehydes (very easily oxidized!)

CH3CH2CH2CH=O

KMnO4, etc. CH3CH2CH2COOH

carboxylic acid

CH3CH2CH2CH=O + Ag+ CH3CH2CH2COO- +Silver

Ag mirror

Aldehyde / Ketone Oxidations cont

or Ar

O
C

KMnO 4 or K2Cr 2O 7

or
C

X2

OH / H2O

O
C

(ArCOOH)

COOH

O
CH 3

RCOOH

Ag(NH3)2
(Tollens reagent)

HIO 4

HCX 3 + RCOO
RCOOH + HCOOH

+ HIO 3

b) Ketones only oxidize under vigorous conditions via the

enol.
O
+

KMnO4

NR

Cyclohexanone
O
+

KMnO4, heat

HOOCCH2CH2CH2CH2COOH
adipic acid

OH

enol

2) Reduction:
a) To alcohols

O
C

H2, Ni

NaBH4 or LiAlH4
then H+

OH
C
H

C
H

H2, Pt

CH2OH

benzaldehyde

CH3
CH3CHCH=O
isobutyraldehyde

benzyl alcohol

LiAlH4

H+

CH3
CH3CHCH2OH
isobutyl alcohol

Reduction
b) To hydrocarbons

O
C

O
C

NH2NH2, OHWolff-Kishner

Zn(Hg), HCl
Clemmensen

CH2

CH2

ketone

ROR

aldehyde

RCOOH

ROH
alkene
RX

Alcohols are
central to organic
syntheses

RH

alkyne

HALOALKANES
GROUP 7

SATURATED
HYDROCARBONS

Uses and
characteristics
Haloalkanes

487

1. Halothane
Non flammable
Non irritating to the respiratory
tract
Can be given alone or combines
with nitrous oxide(N2O) to patients
during surgery of all types and
with muscle relaxants to produce
general anesthetic effect.

2. Ethylchloride

Highly volatile and produces a very

cold temperature and therefore,
used as a local anesthetic.
It makes the area dead to
sensation
Operates very fast

489

3. Freon

Used in aerosol containers and in

refrigeration and air conditioning
units.

490

4. Teflon

Polymer used for coating material

for cooking utensils.

491

5. PVC

Polymer for making plastic

containers and pipes for plumbing

492

6. Chloral hydrate

Induces sleep and prevents

convulsions e.g. fits
It is used in veterinary medicine as
a narcotic and anesthetic for
cattle, horses and poultry.

493

2) salicylic acid + isoamyl alcohol

isoamyl salicylate
OH

H + HO

CH3
CH3

OH

H+, heat
O
O

CH3 + H2O
CH3

3) acetic acid + isoamyl alcohol

isoamyl
acetate
O
H3C

OH+ HO

CH3
CH3

H , heat
+

H3C

CH3
O

+ H2O
CH3

4) propanoic acid + isobutyl alcohol

isobutyl propionate
O
H3C

CH3

OH+ HO

CH3

H+, heat

O
H3C

CH3 + H2O
CH3
For more lessons,
visit

Chemistry of Benzene
Derivatives

497

Aniline

NH2

Formation:

Sn/HCl

NO2

NH2
498

Reactivity of Aniline

Aniline- has lone pair of electrons on

nitrogen (strong o,p directing)
reactions give tri-substituted aniline
Br
Br2
Br
NH2

Br
NH2
499

Reactivity of Aniline

Need to lower reactivity to obtain monosubstituted products.

Using acetic anhydride or acetyl

chloride.

Reaction is reversible

500

acetyl chloride

NH2

CH3COOH

or
acetic anhydride

H3C

NH
O

Br2
Br

Br
+

+
Br
NH2

H /OH

NH2

Br
H3C

H3C

NH

NH
O

O
501

Reaction in the lab

502

Reactivity of Aniline
Me

NH2

Cl
NH2

503

Reaction with NH2 group

Anilines can be converted to diazonium

salts.
NaNO2

H2SO4

N+

NH2

NaHSO4

Reaction requires HNO2 (unstable

prepared insitu)

NaNO2

H2SO4

HNO2

NaHSO4

+
504

Mechanism for
diazotisation

505

Diazonium ion
N

USEFUL REACTIONS

Synthesis of Phenols.
Synthesis of benzoic acid.
Utilizing o,p direction effect
and removing the amino group.
506

I. Substitution Reactions
H2O/H+

KI

OH

warm
I
N+

CuBr2

H3PO2

warm

CuCN

Br
+

H
HOOC

NC

heat
507

A. Phenol synthesis
+

CH3

OH

508

B. Benzoic acid synthesis

NH2

CH3

OH

CH3

509

C. Using o,p effect of

diazonium
Me

Br

NO2

510

II. Coupling reactions

Coupling of 2 ring systems

diazonium ion
nucleophilic ring system (has
activating group)

attaches ortho or para to the activated

ring
GIVES COLORED COMPOUNDS
511

M
E
C
H
A
N
I
S
M

+
N N

..
NMe2

Me

+
N

N N

Me

H
base :

N N

..
N

Me
Me

512

Another Azo compound

OH

N
N

SO 3H

513

Azo dyes

See course book for more azo dyes

Properties:

has conjugated system

(Chromophore)
coloured compounds
carry ionic groups for solubility
514

In most of the
states in the US,
the threshold limit
of blood alcohol
content for drunk
driving is 0.08%
(i.e. 80 mg /100
ml of blood)
In Hong Kong,
the threshold
is 0.05% (i.e.
50 mg / 100
ml of blood)

Although taking
alcohol (ethanol) is
socially acceptable,
driving under the
influence of alcohol
is a crime in most
parts of the world.

Definition
Definition of
of drunk
drunk driving
driving in
in
Hong
Hong Kong
Kong
50
50mg
mgethanol
ethanol//100
100ml
mlof
ofblood
blood
67
67mg
mgethanol
ethanol//100
100ml
mlof
ofblood
blood
22 g ethanol / 100 ml of breath

Breathalyzer

Brief note

In 1847, Bouchardt demonstrated the presence of

alcohol in human breath after the consumption of
wine.
In 1954, Dr. Robert Borkenstein of the Indiana
State Police invented the first breathalyzer a
device that measures a persons blood alcohol level
based on a breath sample.

Dr. Robert Borkenstein (1912

2002) and his breathalyzer. Dr.
Borkensrein invented his
breathalyzer when he was with
the Indiana State Police. He
later became a professor in the
Indiana University at

Principle of breathalyzer
Alveolar air

Wall of
air sac

Alcohol absorbed into the

blood stream is not
immediately metabolized.
It can diffuse into the alveolar
space. The diffusive flux is
proportional to the BAC.

Alcohol in blood
diffuses across
alveolar wall

Blood
vessels

Principle of breathalyzer

Brief note

The relationship between BAC and alcohol in the

lung alveolar air is called the partition ratio. It is
commonly taken to be 2100:1, i.e. 2100 ml of
alveolar air contain the same amount of alcohol as
1 ml of blood.
The Road Traffic Ordinance of Hong Kong also
adopts this partition ratio:
Statutory limit for alcohol in blood is 50 mg/100 ml
of blood
50/2100 = 0.024 mg (or 24 g) per 100 ml of
breath.
There are four most commonly adopted
mechanisms for breathalyzer to measure alcohol
in a breath sample. These mechanisms are

Breathalyzer Chemical oxidation

This was the principle adopted by Dr. Borkenstein
in his breathalyzer
Breath sample

2 Cr2O7

2-

+ 3 C2H5OH +

AgNO
3 as
+
16 catalyst
H

4 Cr3+ + 3 CH3COOH + 11 H2O

Determine by a
photocell system with
optical filter

Breathalyzer Electrochemical (fuel-cell)

Pt electrode

Porous acid
electrolyte

Pt electrode

CH3CH2OH + O2
CH3COOH + 2H+ + 2e-

2H+ + O2 + 2eH 2O

Brief note

Benzodiazepines

All benzodiazepine drugs possess the basic molecular structure

of a three-ring system. Further research led to a second
generation of benzodiazepines containing an additional ring on
top of the three-ring system.
Benzodiazepines are used as replacements for barbiturates
because of their lower adverse reactions upon overdosing. They
are mainly used to reduce anxiety, as anticonvulsants, as
muscle relaxants, as sedatives / hypnotics and as amnesics.

H
C
H
C
3
3
N
N
H
H
C
3
H
O
N
N
3C
N
N
H
N
N
3
N C
NC
l
NC
N
l
l
NC
C
l
O
F
C
l
Chlordiazepoxide

Diazepam

Midazolam

Triazolam

Brief
note
Benzodiazepine side effects & withdrawal
symptoms
While benzodiazepines have lower overdose fatality, they
produce more serious side-effects and withdrawal symptoms to
patients and drug abusers. These side-effects include lightheadedness, drowsiness, lethargy, ataxia and the impairment
of mental and physical functions.
Abrupt discontinuation of the regular dosage of
benzodiazepines may lead to very serious, sometimes
unpredictable, withdrawal symptoms. In general, withdrawal of
the drug causes the reverse of its initial effects.
Withdrawal symptoms include insomnia, anxiety (possible
panic attacks), tachycardia, hypertension, depression (possible
suicidal ideation), tremor, perspiration, loss of appetite,
dysphoria, convulsion, delusions and psychosis.
If the withdrawal is based on a short-acting benzodiazepines,
symptoms begin fairly rapidly after drug discontinuation. For
longer-acting benzodiazepines, patients may have as much as a
week of symptom-free activity after stopping medication before
withdrawal symptoms will begin.

Disassociative anesthetics

Brief note

An anesthetic refers to a drug that brings about a

reversible loss of consciousness.
Anesthetics are generally used to induce and maintain
general anesthesia in order to facilitate a surgery.
Disassociative anesthetics, on the other hand, are
chemicals that do not cause patients to loss their
conscious but, yet, render them non-responsive to
surgical pain.
These disassociative anesthetics are also useful in
inducing and maintaining anesthesia during a surgery
as they do not suppress breathing much. They are also
used as emergency anesthetics and anesthetic in
veterinary medicine.
Disassociative anesthetics that are frequently
encountered in forensic cases are Ketamine,

O
H
O O
H

Disassociative anesthetics

C
lN
H
O

Ketamine

-Hydroxybutryic acid (GHB)

N
Phencyclidine (PCP)

C
lC
H
3
N
HO
C
lH
N
O

(S)-Ketamine

C
l
H
N
O

(R)-Ketamine
Ketamine &
PCP site

NMDA receptor

Ketamine and the NMDA receptor

The abuse of ketamine and
PCP was considered only a
minor problem by the US
DEA in the 90s.

C
lH
N
O

Brief
note
antagonist

C
lC
H
3
N
HO

C
l
H
N
O

However, popularity of
ketamine has grown
tremendously in the last
decade and has become one
of the mostly abused soft(S)-Ketamine
(R)-Ketamine
drug in Hong Kong.
It was first synthesized by Dr. Calvin Stevens at the
Parke-Davis Laboratories in 1962 and was marketed as
an anesthetic agent in 1965.
It was brought in as a safer alternative to PCP and was
extensively used in the Vietnam War as a battlefield
anesthetic.

Brief note
Ketamine and the NMDA receptor antagonist
Ketamine is able to induce disassociative anesthesia as
well as strange out-of-body, out-of-the-world
hallucinations in patients and drug abusers.
These effects are mainly caused by its interaction with
the NMDA receptors widely distributed in the CNS.
NMDA receptors are
cation channels responsive
to the excitatory
neurotransmitter
glutamate (together with a
co-agonist glycine).
Activation of NMDA
receptors results in the
opening of the ion channel
and causes cations (K+,
Na+ and Ca2+) to flux into

Ketamine &
PCP site

Ketamine abuses

Brief note

Ketamine is very bio-available via oral admission,

intramuscular injection and uptake via the mucous
membrane in the nasal cavity (i.e. snorting).
Effects of the drug begin in less than 5 min (via
intramuscular injection) to 15 30 min (via oral admission)
and these effects may last for 1 to 2 hours. Even after the
primary effects of the drug have worn off, side-effects can
still affect the body for up to 1 day.
It induces psychotic states that closely resemble
schizophrenia impairments in the perception or expression
of reality; disorganized thinking; dissociation from the sense
of self and the reality; experience of delusions and
hallucinations.
Other dangerous side-effects include increasing heart-rate
(at low dose); depression of consciousness & breathing (at
high dose); oxygen starvation in muscle & brain; temporary
paralysis; impairment of sense, judgment & coordination;

Brief note

Screening for ketamine

Fast screening for ketamine in patients / victims blood

and urine are usually carried out using TLC and
immunoassay (only recent available).
Field testing for ketamine is usually carried out using the
Janovsky (spot) colour test:
Cl
CH3

C
lC
H
3
N
HO
C
H
C
lH
3C
N
HO
O
2N
N
O
2

NO2

OH-

NH
O

CH2

Purple colour species

NO2

C
lC
H
3
N
H
O
N
O
2
H
N
O
2

Forensic Serology & Bloodstain Analysis

Bloodstain revealed by
the chemiluminescent
reaction between blood
and luminol

Arterial spurt pattern

Blood & Bloodstain Analysis

Drip pattern (blood dripping into

blood) produced by single drops of
blood that fell 90 cm onto a
smooth cardboard
Arterial spurt pattern

Forensic serology refers to the forensic examination of

body fluids such as blood, saliva, semen, urine, sweat
and even fecal matter.

Plasma
Percentage by weight
Proteins 7%

Percentage by
volume

Water
91%

Plasma

Other solutes 2%

55%

Particulates
Number of cell mm-3
Particulate
45%

Platelets
1.5 3.0 105
Leuocytes
10 15 103

Red blood
cells
4.5 6.0 106

Forensic serological investigation

Brief note

Conditions of blood and bloodstains in crime

scenes are usually poor. In most cases, samples
are aged, clotted, contaminated and degraded.
To establish a piece blood / bloodstain of
evidence, the following considerations have to be
taken:
- Is the sample blood?
- Is the sample human blood?
- If it is human blood, what is the blood-type?
- What other information can be obtained from
the
sample for individualization purposes?

Presumptive test for blood

Reduced dye

[O
]

Hemoglobin in blood
as a catalyst

Brief note

Oxidized
dye

Sharp colourimetric /
luminescent change

There is no presumptive test that is 100% specific to

blood. Thus, results of presumptive tests have to be
confirmed by confirmative tests.
Presumptive tests cannot distinguish human blood from
animal blood.

Phenolphthalein (Kastle-Meyer) test

HO

HO

OH

H2O2

CH
COOH

Hb, Alkaline media

Phenolphthalin, colourless

The phenolphthalein (KastleMeyer) test blood turns the

cotton tip of the test-strip from
colourless to bright pink

COO-

Phenolphthalein, Bright pink

Chemiluminescence presumptive test (Luminol test)

O
N
H
N
H
N
H
2O

OH-

O
NNN
H
2O

Luminol
Luminol reveals bloodstain even
after thorough cleanup of visible
blood

Hemoglobin

O
NNOON
H
2O

3% H2O2 or household
bleach

O
OON
H
2O

+ N2 +
light

Fluorescence presumptive test (Fluorescein test)

HO

HO

OH

H2O2
COOH

Fluorescin, non-fluorescent

Hemoglobin

COOH

Fluorescein,
fluorescent at max 496 nm

A latent bloodstain revealed by

fluorescein. The image was view
under 450 nm illumination by an
alternated light source (ALS).

Alternated light sources (ALS)

are useful in revealing latent
fingerprints and bloodstains

Brief
Precipitin test for confirmation of origin
of
blood sample

note

Presumptive tests rely on hemoglobin to catalyze

colorimetric / chemiluminescent / fluorescent
reactions. Hemoglobin is present in both human
and animal (e.g. pets) blood.
In order to confirm the human origin of a blood
sample, the precipitin test has to be used.
Precipitin is an antibody that causes the formation
of clots upon binding with its antigen.
Precipitin for human blood anti-serum can be
obtained by injecting human blood in rabbits.
Precipitin test involves putting the anti-serum on
the blood extract to check for precipitation (positive
responses).

The Ring precipitin test layering

of blood extracts on top of the denser
antiserum and allowing the two
layers to diffuse into each other. A
ring of precipitation at the interface
of the two layers confirms the human
origin of the blood sample.

The Ouchterlony Double

Diffusion Test (Gel Diffusion Test)
blood extracts and antiserum
solution are placed in adjacent wells
set in a piece of hydrogel and
incubate at constant temperature to
allow the two to diffuse toward each
other. A line of precipitation between
the two wells confirms the human
origin of the blood sample.

End of this lecture

Thank you very much for your attention

The Marshs Test for Arsenic

conc. HCl

Porcelain dish
Drying tube

Burner

Sample, Zn, CuSO4 (catalytic

amount)

The Marshs Test for Arsenic

The strong reducing agent, Zn / HCl, reduces the
arsenic in arsenite (As2O3) to an oxidation state of
3, i.e. arsenic hydride (AsH3). The existence of the
gaseous AsH3 is verified by its thermal
decomposition to the elemental As.
6 Zn + 12 HCl

6 H2 (nascent) + 6 ZnCl2

As2O3 + 6 H2 (nascent) 2 AsH3(g) + 3 H2O

2 AsH3 + 3/2 O2
2 As + 3/2 O2

Formation of black
Asmirror
(s) +on
3 white
H2O
substrates
Formation of white

As2O3 mirror on black

substrates

Typical US
technique for the
opening of the
chest and
abdomen during
an examination
autopsy
medical

Forensic pathology - the

of
the body of the victim of a crime. The most often
duty of a forensic pathologist is autopsy.

One of the major

role of a forensic
odontologist is to
use dentition to
identify individuals
by comparing the
unique aspects of
the victims teeth
with pre-death
dental records.
Teeth are also
Forensic odontology (Forensic dentistry)
the
excellent sources
of
for
application of the arts and sciences DNA
of dentistry
to
identification
the legal system.
purposes.

 Forensic Anthropology the application of the theory

and methods of anthropology to forensic problems. The
most useful set of techniques are that of human skeletal
biology, which enable the reconstruction of biological
profiles of a victim from his/her (skeletal) remains to aid
identification. Forensic anthropology also helps to
determine postmortem changes and provides information
on the death event, including evidence of trauma
occurring during the perimortem period.

Brief note

Laws of Hong Kong, Chapter 134: Dangerous Drugs Ordinance

PART II
CONTROL OF IMPORT, EXPORT, PROCURING, SUPPLY,
DEALING IN OR WITH, MANUFACTURE AND
POSSESSION OF DANGEROUS DRUGS

Trafficking in dangerous drug

(1) Save under and in accordance with this Ordinance or a licence granted by the Director (of
Health) hereunder, no person shall, on his own behalf or on behalf of any other person,
whether or not such other person is in Hong Kong(a) traffic in a dangerous drug;
(b) offer to traffic in a dangerous drug or in a substance he believes to be a dangerous
drug; or
(c) do or offer to do an act preparatory to or for the purpose of trafficking in a
dangerous drug
or in a substance he believes to be a dangerous drug.
(2) Subsection (1) shall apply whether or not the dangerous drug is in Hong Kong or is to be
imported into Hong Kong or is ascertained, appropriated or in existence.
(3) Any person who contravenes any of the provisions of subsection (1) shall be guilty of an
offence and shall be liable(a) on conviction on indictment, to a fine of $5000000 and to imprisonment for life; and
(b) on summary conviction, to a fine of $500000 and to imprisonment for 3 years.
(4) This section does not apply to(a) a preparation specified in Part II of the First Schedule; or
(b) a dangerous drug which is in transit and(i) is in course of transit from a country from which it may lawfully be exported to
another country into which it may lawfully be imported; and
(ii) was exported from a country which is a party to the Conventions and is
accompanied by a valid export authorization or diversion certificate, as the case
may be.

Brief note
Trafficking in purported dangerous drug
(1) No person shall, on his own behalf or on behalf of any other person, whether or
not such other person is in Hong Kong(a) traffic in any substance represented or held out by him to be a dangerous
drug
but which is not in fact a dangerous drug;
(b) offer to traffic in any substance represented or held out by him to be a
dangerous
drug but which is not in fact a dangerous drug; or
(c) do or offer to do an act preparatory to or for the purpose of trafficking in
any
substance represented or held out by him to be a dangerous drug but
which is
not in fact a dangerous drug.
(2) Subsection (1) shall apply whether or not the substance represented or held
out to be a dangerous drug is in Hong Kong or is to be imported into Hong Kong or
is ascertained, appropriated or in existence.
(3) Any person who contravenes any of the provisions of subsection (1) shall be
guilty of an offence and shall be liable(a) on conviction on indictment, to a fine of $500000 and to imprisonment for
7 years;
and
(b) on summary conviction, to a fine of $100000 and to imprisonment for 1
year.
(4) No prosecution for an offence under this section shall be instituted without the
consent in writing of the Secretary for Justice, but this subsection shall not prevent
the arrest, or the issue of a warrant for the arrest, of a person for any such
offence, or the remand in custody or on bail of a person charged with such an
offence.

Brief note

Dangerous drug not to be supplied except to person authorized or licensed

to be in possession thereof
(1) No person shall supply or procure, or offer to supply or procure, a dangerous drug
to or for any person in Hong Kong unless(a) the latter person is authorized by or licensed under this Ordinance to be in
possession of that dangerous drug;
(b) the dangerous drug is to be supplied or procured in accordance with this
Ordinance;
and
(c) in the case of a person licensed under this Ordinance to be in possession of
the
dangerous drug, the dangerous drug is to be supplied or procured in
accordance
with the conditions of his licence.
(2) Any person who contravenes subsection (1) shall be guilty of an offence and shall
be liable(a) on conviction on indictment, to a fine of $100000 and to imprisonment for 15
years;
and
(b) on summary conviction, to a fine of $10000 and to imprisonment for 3 years.
(3) For the purposes of this section, the administration of a dangerous drug(a) by or under the direct personal supervision of, and in the presence of, a
registered
medical practitioner;
(b) by or under the direct personal supervision of, and in the presence of, a
registered
dentist in the course of dental treatment;
(c) by a sister for the time being in charge of a ward, theatre or other department
in a
prescribed hospital or in a health centre or clinic maintained by the Crown
acting on
the instructions of a registered medical practitioner, to a patient of
that ward, theatre,
department, health centre or clinic; or
(d) which is a specified dangerous drug, by or under the direct personal
supervision of,
and in the presence of, a specified person in the course of
medical treatment in a
specified clinic,
shall be deemed not to be the supplying of the dangerous drug.

Brief note

Manufacture of dangerous drug

(1) Save under and in accordance with this Ordinance or under and in accordance
with a licence granted by the Director thereunder and on the premises specified
in such licence, no person shall(a) manufacture a dangerous drug; or
(b) do or offer to do an act preparatory to or for the purpose of
manufacturing a dangerous drug.
(2) Any person who contravenes subsection (1) shall be guilty of an offence and
shall be liable on conviction on indictment to a fine of $5000000 and to
imprisonment for life.

Possession of dangerous drug otherwise than for trafficking, and

consumption of dangerous drug
(1) Save under and in accordance with this Ordinance or a licence granted by the
Director thereunder, no person shall(a) have in his possession; or
(b) smoke, inhale, ingest or inject, a dangerous drug.
(2) Any person who contravenes any of the provisions of subsection (1) shall be
guilty of an offence and shall be liable(a) on conviction upon indictment to a fine of $1000000 and, subject to
section
54A, to imprisonment for 7 years; or
(b) on summary conviction to a fine of $100000 and, subject to section 54A,
to
imprisonment for 3 years.

Brief
note
Cultivation of and dealing in cannabis plant and opium
poppy
(1)No person shall cultivate any plant of the genus cannabis or
the opium poppy, but nothing in this subsection shall prevent
the Government Chemist, in his capacity as such, from
cultivating a plant of the genus cannabis so far as may be
necessary for the exercise of his employment.
(2) No person shall, on his own behalf or on behalf of any other
person, whether or not such other person is in Hong Kong(a) supply or procure or offer to supply or procure;
(b) in any way deal in or with or offer or purport to deal in or
with; or
(c) import into or export from Hong Kong or do an act
preparatory to or
for the purpose of such importing or
exporting, any plant of the genus
cannabis or the opium
poppy, whether or not the same is in Hong
Kong or is
ascertained or appropriated or in existence.
(3) No person shall have in his possession any plant of the
genus cannabis or the opium poppy unless the same is in
transit.
(4) Section 14 shall apply to any plant of the genus cannabis

Aldehydes and
Ketones

Nomenclature
Properties
Preparation reactions of
Aldehydes and Ketones
Characteristic reactions of
Aldehydes and Ketones
Carbanion related reactions
Spectroscopy

Preparation of Aldehydes
and Ketones

Oxidation reactions
Hydrolysis of Geminal
Dihalides
Hydration of Alkynes
Reactions with Acid
Derivatives and Nitriles
Reaction with Carboxylic
Acids

Aldehydes/Ketones via
Oxidation Reactions

From Alcohols via PCC

From Alkenes via Ozonolysis
From Glycols via Periodic Acid

Cleavage
PCC
RCH 2 OH

R 2 CHOH

PCC

C H

O
R

O
R'CH

CR 2

ozonolysis

R' C H + R
O

R'
R

C
OH

CH 2 OH

HIO 4

C
O

O
R' + H

C H
O

Hydrolysis of
Geminal
Dihalides
Formation of Aldehydes or

Ketones

R CH Cl2
R 2CCl2

H 2O

H 2O

C H + 2 HCl
O
C R + 2 HCl
O

Hydration of
Alkynes

Markovnikov Addition
Anti-Markovnikov
Addition

H 2O/H2SO 4
R C CH
R C CH 2
HgSO 4
OH
R C CH

1. 9-BBN

2. H 2O 2/OH

RCH CH
OH

R C CH 3
O
R CH 2 C H
O

Reactions with Acid Halides

Aldehydes via Selective

Reduction

Lithium tri-tert-butoxyaluminum
hydride
Rosenmund reduction

Ketones via Friedel-Crafts

Acylation
Ketones via reaction with

Aldehydes and Ketones

Nomenclature
IUPAC
Common

Properties

Aldehydes from Acid

Chlorides

Lithium tri-t-butoxyaluminum
hydride reduction
Rosenmund reduction

C Cl
O

C Cl
O

LiAlH(O-t-bu) 3
ether

H 2 / Pd / S
BaSO 4

Rosenmund catalyst

C H
O
C H
O

Aldehydes from Esters and

Amides
Diisobutylaluminum
hydride
(DIBAH or DIBAL-H)

O
R C OR'
or
O
R C NH 2
or
O
R C NHR'
or
O
R C NR 2 '

1. Diisobutylaluminum
hydride
2.

H3 O

O
R C H

Ketones via Friedel-Crafts

Acylation

R C Cl
O
R C O C R
O

AlCl3
benzene
AlCl3
benzene

C R + HCl
O
C R + RCOOH
O

Ketones via Reaction

with Organometallics
Use of Lithium
dialkylcuprates

C Cl
O

(R') 2CuLi

C R' + R'-Cu + LiCl

O

where R' can be alkyl, aryl, or vinyl

Reactions with Nitriles

Grignard Addition to give
Ketones
DIBAH
R'MgX
H
Addition
R CN
R C N MgXto give
R C R'
H O
O
Aldehydes R'

R CN

DIBAH or DIBAL-H

diisobutylaluminum hydride

C H
O

C N Al(i-bu)2
H

H /H2 O

Ketones from Carboxylic

Acids
Attack by Alkyl Lithium
reagents RLi

RCOO Li
R
R
R
R

RLi

H 2O

O Li
OH
OH

R
R

+
O Li
-

RCOO Li + RH

RCOOH

( H 2O )

R
R
R

+
O Li
-

O Li+
OH
OH

C R
O

Ketones from
Thioacetals
Thioacetal formation from an aldehyde

precursor
Alkylation of the thioacetal intermediate
using alkyl lithium reagents
Hydrolysis of the alkylated thioacetal to

give
ketone product
R

S
C

C 4H 9Li
(

C 4H10 )

C
R

CH 2 R'

S
C

Li

(a thioacetal)

R'CH 2X

HgCl 2 / CH3OH / H2O

(

S
C

BF 3

O
S

HSCH 2CH 2SH

HSCH 2CH 2 SH )

S
C
R

C
O

+ LiX
CH 2 R'

CH 2 R'

Characteristic
Characteristic Reactions
Reactions of
of
Aldehydes
Aldehydes and
and Ketones
Ketones

Reduction reactions

Alcohol formation
Alkane formation

Oxidation reactions
Nucleophilic addition reactions

Grignard additions to form alcohols

Addition of water (hydration) to form
gem-diols
Addition of alcohols to form
acetals/ketals
Addition of HCN to form

Reduction Reactions of
Aldehydes and Ketones

Alcohol
formation
Hydrogenation
Hydride
reduction

Alkane
formation

Clemmensen
reduction

C H
O

H 2 / Pt

LiAlH4
C H
ether
O

CH 2OH

H 2O
H

C H conc. HCl R CH 3
Zn(Hg)
O
NH 2NH 2
R C H
R CH 3
OH / H2O
O

CH 2OH

Oxidation of
Aldehydes and
Ketones
Conversion of Aldehydes to

Carboxylic acids
Oxidation of Aromatic
Aldehydes/Ketones to Benzoic acid
derivatives
Haloform reaction of methyl
carbonyls
Periodic acid cleavage of vicinal

Aldehyde / Ketone
Oxidations

H or Ar

KMnO 4 or K2Cr 2O 7

or

X2

OH / H2O

O
C

(ArCOOH)

COOH

O
CH 3

RCOOH

(Tollens reagent)

Ag(NH3)2

HIO 4

HCX 3 + RCOO

RCOOH + HCOOH + HIO 3

Aldehyde/KetoneNucleophilic
AdditionReactions

R'

H
H 2O

R"MgX
+

C
O

C
O

H or OH
R'
H 2O

C
O

R'

dry HCl
R'
R''OH

R'

R
OH

OH

R'
R'

R
HCN

R'

gem diol

OH

OR"

R'

OH
CN

OR"
OR"

ketal

cyanohydrin
R

H 2N

R'

OH

hemiketal

O
R

R"

(-H 2O)

R'

Carbanion Related Reactions

Aldol Condensation

Self vs. Crossed

Claisen Condensation
Self vs. Crossed
Dieckmann cyclization

Reformatsky Reaction
Wittig Reaction
Carbanion
Alkylations/Acylations/Conjugat
e Addition reactions

Aldol
Aldol
Condensations
Condensations
Self
Condensation
Crossed
H
+
Condensation
OH or H
C H
RCH C

2 RCH 2

OH

C H + R' C H
O

CH C H

RCH 2

OH or H

H R
R' C CH C H
OH

ClaisenCondensations
Self vs. Crossed
Condensation
Dieckmann
R'O
RCH 2 C CH
2RCH 2 C OR'
R'OH
Condensation
O R
O

RCH 2

R'O

R'O
C OR' + R" C OR'
R'OH
O
O

(CH 2)4

O
R'O

C
O

(CH 2)5

R'O
C OR'
R'OH
O
R'O
C OR'
R'OH
O

R" C

C OR' + R'OH
O
CH C OR' + R'OH

O R

O
C
O
C

OR' + R'OH

OR' + R'OH

Reformatsky
Reformatsky Reaction
Reaction

C H + Br CH 2 C OR'
O

C R + Br CH 2 C OR'
O

1. Zn/ benzene
2. H3O

C CH 2 C OR'
OH

1. Zn/ benzene
2. H3O

R
R

C CH 2 C OR'
OH

Wittig Reaction

RCH 2X +Ph3P
+
Ph3P
R'

C
O

Phosphonium salt
formation
Ylide formation
Alkene+ formation
SN2

CH 2R X

R'
+

CHR
PPh3
+

Ph3P

CH 2R X

phosphonium salt

NaH

+
Ph3P

CHR + NaX + H 2

ylide

(R') 2C CHR
O PPh3
oxaphosphatane

R'
R'

+ R
Ph3P O

alkene
+
triphenylphosphine oxide

Carbanion
Alkylation/Acylation/Conjugate
Addition Reactions

Malonic Ester Synthesis

Acetoacetic Ester
Synthesis
Stork Enamine Synthesis
Michael Addition /
Conjugate Addition

MalonicEsterSynthesis
Formation of alkylated acetic acid

+
derivatives
Na
C2H 5O C CH 2
O

NaOC 2H 5
C OC 2 H 5
C2 H 5 OH
O

+
Na
C2H 5O C CH C OC 2 H 5
O
O

RCH 2 X

CH 2R
C2H 5 O C CH C OC 2H 5
O
O

C2H 5 O C CH C OC 2 H 5
O
O
CH 2 R
C2H 5 O C CH C OC 2 H 5
O
O

H /H2 O

CH 2 R
strong heat
HO C CH C OH
O
O

CH 2R
HO C CH C OH
O
O

RCH 2 CH 2COOH + CO 2

Malonic Ester Synthesis

Acylation/Hydrolysis/Decarboxylatio
n
Na+

C2H 5O C CH 2 C OC 2H 5
O

Na+
C2H 5O C CH C OC 2 H 5
O

C2H 5O C CH C OC 2H 5

NaOC 2H 5
C2H 5OH

O
R C X
(-NaX)
+

H /H2O

C2H 5O C CH C OC 2H 5
O

C2H 5O C CH C OC 2H 5
O
O C
R
O

HO C CH C OH

O
O C
R
O

HO C CH C OH
O
O C
R

strong heat

O
O C
R
O
R C CH 3 + 2 CO 2
O

AcetoaceticEsterSynthesis
Formation
of
alkylated
acetone
derivatives

CH 3 C CH 2 C OC 2 H 5
O

O
Na +

CH 3 C CH
O

C OC 2H 5
O

CH 2R
CH 3 C CH
O

RCH 2X
(-NaX)

H /H2O

CH 3 C CH

C OH
O

CH 3 C CH

CH 2R
CH 3 C CH
O

C OC 2 H 5
O

CH 2R
CH 3 C CH
O

strong heat
(- CO 2 )

C OC 2H 5

C OC 2H 5

CH 2 R
O

NaOC 2 H 5
C2 H 5OH

Na +

C OH
O

CH 3 C CH 2 CH 2 R
O

Acetoacetic Ester Synthesis

Formation of acylated acetone derivatives

CH 3 C CH 2 C OC 2 H 5
O

O
Na

CH 3 C CH C OC 2 H 5
O

NaOC 2 H 5
C2 H 5 OH
O
R C X
(-NaX)

Na +
CH 3 C CH C OC 2 H 5
O

CH 3

CH 3

O C
C CH C OC 2 H 5
O

O C
+
H /H2O
C CH C OC 2 H 5

O
R

CH 3

O C
C CH C OH
O

CH 3

O C
strong heat
C CH C OH
(- CO 2 )
O
O

CH 3 C CH 2 C R
O

Stork Enamine Synthesis

Formation
of Alkylated Aldehydes/Ketones

H OH

R' C C H +R 2 NH

R' C C H
NHR 2

R'

(-H 2 O )

(an aminol )

( H+ )

C H

R'

NR 2

C H
NR 2

CH 2 R"

R"CH 2 X

R'

SN 2

C H
NR 2
+

CH 2 R"
R'

C H
NR 2
+

hydrolysis

C H

(an enamine)

(a disguised carbanion)

NR 2

R'

C H
NR 2

R'

CH 2 R"
R'

C H + R 2 NH
O

StorkEnamineSynthesis

Formation of Acylated
H
H OH
Aldehydes/Ketones

R' C C H +R 2 NH

R' C C H
NHR 2
+
(an aminol )

R'

H
(-H 2 O )

R'

( H+ )

C H

R'

(a disguised carbanion)
O
O
C
C H

R" C X

R'

R'

R"
C H
NR 2
+

O
hydrolysis

R"
C H
+

(an enamine)

NR 2

NR 2
O

C H
NR 2

C H
NR 2

NR 2

R'

R'

C
C

R"
C H + R 2 NH
O

Conjugate Addition to
Unsaturated
Systems

Nu +

O
Nu

Nu

C C

C C

C C
O

Nu

C C
H

where Nu = CN -1 , NH3 , RNH2 , & R 2NH

Michael
Addition
Michael

Michael Donors Acceptors

CH (COOR) 2
malonic ester

COOR
C R'

CH

RCH

C C
O

CH

R'

(Michael donor)

H 2O

unsaturated ketone

R'

R'

RCH

CH

OR'

O
unsaturated ester

-diketone

RCH

R 2 CuLi
dialkyl cuprate

unsaturated aldehyde

-ketoester

CH

Michael Product

RCH

CH

enamine

CH

C N

unsaturated nitrile

RCH

CH NO 2

unsaturated nitroalkene

CH C

Michael Addition

Robinson Annulation

C O
C

C
H 3C

OR

O C

ROH

C
C

H 3C

C Michael
C product

Michael donor Michael acceptor

OR ROH

O
C
C

C
C
C
O

C
C

HO
H 2O

H 2C

C
C
C
O

O C

C
C

Aldol

H 2C

C
C
C
O

C
C

Direct vs. Conjugate Addition to

Unsaturated Carbonyl
Systems

OH
C C C
H

direct addition

+ Nu

C C C

Nu

H+

H O
C C C
Nu
conjugate addition

Conjugate addition
NH 3 , RNH 2 , & R 2 NH
-1

CN
R SH
R 2 CuLi
carbanions
(Michael addition)

Direct addition
LiAlH 4
RLi or ArLi
RMgX (subject to
steric considerations)

Spectroscopy of
Aldehydes and
Ketones
Mass
Spectrometry
Infrared
Spectroscopy
Pmr Spectroscopy
Cmr Spectroscopy

Carboxylic acids and their

Derivatives
(chapter 36)

Structure
O

-I effect

R C O-H

Two functional groups

adjacent to each other
C=O and OH groups
modify each other and
shows different properties.

Acidity
O
R C
extra
+ve

Greater polarization of
this bond

O H
Polarization of this bond is
increased, O-H bond is
weakened. (Acidic)

Acidity

O
R C .. O

..

OR C

-ve charge is spreaded

over the C=O group
and stabilize the anion
RCOO-

Question
Explain the following order of acid strength
a. RCOOH > C6H5OH > R-OH
b. CCl3COOH > CHCl2COOH > CH2ClCOOH
> CH3COOH

Acid strength
RCOOH RCOO- + H+
Acid
pKa
HCOOH
3.8
CH3COOH
4.8
CH3CH2COOH 4.9
CH3CH3CH2COOH 4.8

All are weak acids,

<1% ionized in water

Reduction mechanism
O
R C

H
O H

H:-

R C
H:-

H+

H
R C OH
H

H
R C OH

Reactions of acyl halides

and acid anhydrides

R C
+

O
R

Cl

O
-

C=O provides extra polarity to activate the

C-X, C-O bonds

Reactions of acyl halides

and acid anhydrides
O:R C BH+

O
R C

HB:

-Z-

O
R C B

-H+

O
R C BH+

Reactivity: -Cl > -OCOR > -OR > -NH2

(base strength: NH2->OR->OCOR->Cl-)

pKa
HCl
-2.2
RCOOH 4~5
ROH 16~19
NH3
34

Reaction with water

O
R C

Cl

RCOOH + HCl

O
R

H2O:

H2O:

2 RCOOH

Reaction with R-OH

CH3COCl + R-OH CH3COOR + HCl
COOH
OH

+ (CH3CO)2O
COOH
OCOCH3 + CH3COOH
(Aspirin)

Reaction with ammonia

and amine
CH3COCl + 2NH3 CH3CONH2 + NH4Cl
CH3COCl + NH(CH3)2 CH3CON(CH3)2 + HCl
(CH3CO)2O + 2NH3 CH3CONH2 +
NH4+CH3COO(CH3CO)2O + 2RNH2 CH3CONHR +
RNH3+CH3COO-

Mechanism of reduction
AlH3-

O
AlH4
R C OR

LiAlH4

O
R C H

RCH2O-AlH3-

O
R C OR
H

+ RO-AlH3H3O+

H3O+

RCH2OH

ROH

Reactions of amides
1. Hydrolysis
reflux

RCONH2 + H3O+ RCOOH + NH4+

reflux

RCONH2 + OH- RCOO- + NH3

2. Dehydration
P2O5, heat

C6H5CONH2

C6H5CN + H2O

Reactions of amides
3. Hofmann degradation
CH3CH2CONH2 + 4KOH + Br2
CH3CH2NH2 + K2CO3 + 2KBr + 2H2O
(one carbon atom less)
4. Reduction (LiAlH4)
LiAlH4 H3O+

RCONH2

RCH2NH2

Mechanism (Hofmann)
O

R C NH + Br- + H2O

R C NH2 + OH- + Br2

O

OH

R C N

Br

H
R-N=C=O + H2O

Br

O
R C N-

Br

O
R-NH-C-OH

-Br-

R-N=C=O

RNH2 + CO2

Mechanism (reduction)
O

O- Li+

R C NH2
:H-

R C NH2
:HH
LiAlH4

RCH2NH2 + Li2O

32.2 Nomenclature of Carboxylic Acids and their Derivatives (SB p.25)

Example 32-2A

Example 32-2B

Check Point 32-2

32.3 Physical Properties of Carboxylic Acids (SB p.27)

Physical properties of some carboxylic acids

Carboxylic
Molecular
Boiling Melting Density
acid
formula
point
point at 20oC
(oC)
(oC)
(g cm-3)

Methanoic
acid

HCOOH

101

8.4

1.220

Ethanoic
acid

CH3COOH

118

16.6

1.049

Propanoic
acid

CH3CH2COOH

141

-20.8

0.992

Butanoic
acid

CH3(CH2) COOH

164

-6.5

0.964

Pentanoic
acid

CH3(CH2) COOH

186

-34.5

0.939

Hexanoic
acid

CH3(CH2)4COOH

205

-1.5

0.927

32.3 Physical Properties of Carboxylic Acids (SB p.27)

Physical properties of some carboxylic acids

Carboxylic acid
Molecular
Boiling Melting Density
formula
point
point at 20oC
(oC)
(oC)
(g cm-3)

Benzoic acid

C6H5COOH

249

122

Phenylethanoic
acid

C6H5CH COOH

266

76

Methylpropanoic (CH3)2CHCOOH
acid

154

-47

Chloroethanoic
acid

CH2ClCOOH

189

63

Dichloroethanoic CHCl2COOH
acid

194

10.8

1.566

Trichloroethanoic acid

198

57.7

CCl3COOH

0.950

32.
5Reactions of
Carboxylic
Acids

32.5 Reactions of Carboxylic Acids (SB p.32)

Acidity of Carboxylic Acids

Carboxylic acids are weak acids

The acidic properties of carboxylic acids

are due to
the presence of the ionizable hydrogen
atom in the carboxyl group

32.5 Reactions of Carboxylic Acids (SB p.32)

Acidity of Carboxylic Acids

e.g.: In water, ethanoic acid molecules
dissociate into ions

[K
C
H
O
]
[
H
O
]
C

3
3
a3

32.5 Reactions of Carboxylic Acids (SB p.32)

Acidity of Carboxylic Acids

The acid strength of ethanoic acid is

shown by the value of its acid
dissociation constant (Ka) :

32.5 Reactions of Carboxylic Acids (SB p.33)

Acidity of Carboxylic Acids

For weak acids such as ethanoic acid

the Ka values are very small

It is more convenient to express the Ka

by pKa
pKa = log Ka

The smaller the value of pKa, the

stronger the acid

32.5 Reactions of Carboxylic Acids (SB p.33)

Acidity of Carboxylic Acids

Carboxylic acids are much more acidic

than alcohols

Unsubstituted carboxylic acids have

pKa values in the range of 3 to 5

Alcohols have pKa values in the range

of 15 to 18

32.5 Reactions of Carboxylic Acids (SB p.33)

Acidity of Carboxylic Acids

pKa values of some common carboxylic acids

Name

Molecular formula pKa value

Methanoic acid HCOOH

3.75

Ethanoic acid

4.76

CH3COOH

Propanoic acid CH3CH2COOH

4.87

Butanoic acid

CH3CH2CH2COOH

4.82

Benzoic acid

C6H5COOH

4.20

32.5 Reactions of Carboxylic Acids (SB p.33)

Formation of Salts
1. Reaction with Reactive Metals

Carboxylic acids react with reactive

metals such as Na or Mg
form the corresponding metal
carboxylates and hydrogen gas

32.5 Reactions of Carboxylic Acids (SB p.33)

1. Reaction with Reactive Metals

32.5 Reactions of Carboxylic Acids (SB p.33)

1. Reaction with Reactive Metals

e.g.

32.5 Reactions of Carboxylic Acids (SB p.34)

2. Reaction with Bases

Carboxylic acids react with strong alkalis
such as NaOH
form sodium carboxylates and water

32.5 Reactions of Carboxylic Acids (SB p.34)

2. Reaction with Bases

e.g.

32.5 Reactions of Carboxylic Acids (SB p.34)

2. Reaction with Bases

Carboxylic acids also react with weak
alkalis such as Na2CO3 or NaHCO3
form sodium carboxylates, carbon
dioxide and water

32.5 Reactions of Carboxylic Acids (SB p.34)

2. Reaction with Bases

e.g.

32.5 Reactions of Carboxylic Acids (SB p.35)

2. Reaction with Bases

This reaction provides an important test

to distinguish between carboxylic acids
and other acidic organic compounds
such as phenols

Phenols are weaker acids than

carboxylic acids

32.5 Reactions of Carboxylic Acids (SB p.35)

2. Reaction with Bases

Phenols react with NaOH, but they do

not react with NaHCO3

Check Point 32-5

32.5 Reactions of Carboxylic Acids (SB p.35)

Reaction with Thionyl Chloride/Phosphorus

Trichloride/Phosphorus Pentachloride

Carboxylic acids react with SOCl2, PCl3

or PCl5
give acyl chlorides in good yield
one of the methods for preparing
acyl chlorides

32.5 Reactions of Carboxylic Acids (SB p.35)

Reaction with Thionyl Chloride/Phosphorus

Trichloride/Phosphorus Pentachloride

32.5 Reactions of Carboxylic Acids (SB p.36)

Reaction with Thionyl Chloride/Phosphorus

Trichloride/Phosphorus Pentachloride

Acyl chlorides can be used to prepare

aldehydes, ketones, esters, amides and
acid anhydrides

32.5 Reactions of Carboxylic Acids (SB p.36)

Reaction with Thionyl Chloride/Phosphorus

Trichloride/Phosphorus Pentachloride

Acyl chlorides must be stored in

anhydrous conditions
they hydrolyze rapidly in the
presence of even a trace amount
water to form carboxylic acids

of

32.5 Reactions of Carboxylic Acids (SB p.36)

Reaction with Alcohols

Carboxylic acids react with alcohols to

form esters through a condensation
reaction
known as esterification

32.5 Reactions of Carboxylic Acids (SB p.36)

Reaction with Alcohols

Esterification reactions are:

acid-catalyzed
reversible

Proceed slowly in the absence of acids

Addition of a small amount of conc. H2SO4

the reaction can reach equilibrium within
a few hours

32.5 Reactions of Carboxylic Acids (SB p.36)

Reaction with Alcohols

The yield of the ester can be increased by

using excess carboxylic acid or alcohol
removing water from the reaction
mixture

32.5 Reactions of Carboxylic Acids (SB p.36)

Reaction with Ammonia

Carboxylic acids react with aqueous

ammonia
form ammonium salts

32.5 Reactions of Carboxylic Acids (SB p.36)

Reaction with Ammonia

When we evaporate the water and

subsequently heat the dry salt
dehydration occurs
an amide is formed

32.5 Reactions of Carboxylic Acids (SB p.37)

Reaction with Ammonia

A poor method for preparing amides

A much better method is to:

convert the carboxylic acid to an acyl
chloride
treat the acyl chloride with ammonia
or an amine

32.5 Reactions of Carboxylic Acids (SB p.37)

Reaction with Acyl Chlorides

Carboxylic acids react with acyl chlorides
in the presence of pyridine
give acid anhydrides

Frequently used in the laboratory for the

preparation of acid anhydrides

32.5 Reactions of Carboxylic Acids (SB p.37)

Reaction with Acyl Chlorides

Sodium salts of carboxylic acids also
react with acyl chlorides
give acid anhydrides

Example 32-5

32.
6Reactions of
the
Derivatives of
Carboxylic
Acids

32.6 Reactions of the Derivatives of Carboxylic Acids (SB p.38)

Reaction of Acyl Chlorides

The acyl carbon atom is a good

nucleophilic site
both O and Cl atoms are electronwithdrawing groups
makes the acyl carbon atom electrondeficient

32.6 Reactions of the Derivatives of Carboxylic Acids (SB p.38)

Reaction of Acyl Chlorides

The most characteristic reaction of acyl
chlorides is nucleophilic substitution
reactions that take place at the acyl
carbon atom

where H Nu represents H
H NH2, etc.

OH, H

OR,

32.6 Reactions of the Derivatives of Carboxylic Acids (SB p.39)

1. Reaction with Water

Acyl chlorides are hydrolyzed by water
form the parent carboxylic acids and
HCl

32.6 Reactions of the Derivatives of Carboxylic Acids (SB p.39)

1. Reaction with Water

e.g.
Ethanoyl chloride is readily hydrolyzed by
water to give ethanoic acid

32.6 Reactions of the Derivatives of Carboxylic Acids (SB p.39)

General Mechanism of Nucleophilic Acyl

Substitution
Take the hydrolysis of acyl chlorides as
an example:

32.6 Reactions of the Derivatives of Carboxylic Acids (SB p.39)

2. Reaction with Alcohols

Acyl chlorides react with alcohols

form esters and HCl

32.6 Reactions of the Derivatives of Carboxylic Acids (SB p.39)

2. Reaction with Alcohols

e.g.
Ethanoyl chloride reacts with methanol to
form methyl ethanoate and HCl

32.6 Reactions of the Derivatives of Carboxylic Acids (SB p.40)

2. Reaction with Alcohols

Phenols also react with acyl chlorides to
form esters
a base is required as a catalyst
in an alkaline medium, phenol converts
to a more powerful nucleophilic ion

Phenoxide ion

32.6 Reactions of the Derivatives of Carboxylic Acids (SB p.40)

2. Reaction with Alcohols

e.g.

32.6 Reactions of the Derivatives of Carboxylic Acids (SB p.40)

3. Reactions with Ammonia and Amines

Acyl chlorides react with ammonia
form amides rapidly

32.6 Reactions of the Derivatives of Carboxylic Acids (SB p.40)

3. Reactions with Ammonia and Amines

e.g.
Ethanoyl chloride reacts with ammonia to
form ethanamide

32.6 Reactions of the Derivatives of Carboxylic Acids (SB p.40)

3. Reactions with Ammonia and Amines

Acyl chlorides also react rapidly with 1o and

2o amines
give N- and N, N-substituted amides
respectively

32.6 Reactions of the Derivatives of Carboxylic Acids (SB p.40)

3. Reactions with Ammonia and Amines

32.6 Reactions of the Derivatives of Carboxylic Acids (SB p.41)

3. Reactions with Ammonia and Amines

The reaction between acyl chlorides and

amines (or ammonia)
usually takes place at room temperature
produces amides in high yields
one of the most widely used laboratory
methods for the synthesis of amides
Check Point 32-6

32.6 Reactions of the Derivatives of Carboxylic Acids (SB p.41)

Hydrolysis of Acid Anhydrides

Reactions of acid anhydrides are similar

to those of acyl chlorides
they are less reactive than acyl
chlorides

The reactions of acyl chlorides often

produce hydrogen chloride

The reactions of acid anhydrides often

produce carboxylic acids

32.6 Reactions of the Derivatives of Carboxylic Acids (SB p.41)

Hydrolysis of Acid Anhydrides

Acid anhydrides undergo hydrolysis

form carboxylic acids

32.6 Reactions of the Derivatives of Carboxylic Acids (SB p.41)

Hydrolysis of Acid Anhydrides

e.g.
Ethanoic anhydride is hydrolyzed by water
to form ethanoic acid

32.6 Reactions of the Derivatives of Carboxylic Acids (SB p.41)

Reactions of Esters
1. Acid-catalyzed Hydrolysis

Reverse reaction of esterification

Esters are hydrolyzed to form the

corresponding carboxylic acids and
alcohols

32.6 Reactions of the Derivatives of Carboxylic Acids (SB p.42)

1. Acid-catalyzed Hydrolysis

e.g.
Propyl methanoate undergoes acidcatalyzed hydrolysis
form methanoic acid and propan-1-ol

32.6 Reactions of the Derivatives of Carboxylic Acids (SB p.42)

2. Alkali-catalyzed Hydrolysis
When an ester is refluxed with an alkali
such as NaOH(aq)
the sodium salt of the carboxylic
acid and the corresponding alcohol
are produced

32.6 Reactions of the Derivatives of Carboxylic Acids (SB p.42)

2. Alkali-catalyzed Hydrolysis

e.g.
Ethyl ethanoate undergoes hydrolysis in
sodium hydroxide solution
form sodium ethanoate and ethanol

32.6 Reactions of the Derivatives of Carboxylic Acids (SB p.42)

2. Alkali-catalyzed Hydrolysis

The reaction is used to make soap

Fats or oils are triesters

hydrolyzed by alkalis
produce sodium carboxylates (i.e.
soap)

Sometimes called saponification

32.6 Reactions of the Derivatives of Carboxylic Acids (SB p.42)

2. Alkali-catalyzed Hydrolysis

32.6 Reactions of the Derivatives of Carboxylic Acids (SB p.42)

2. Alkali-catalyzed Hydrolysis

Alkali-catalyzed hydrolysis is an
irreversible reaction

Let's Think 1

32.6 Reactions of the Derivatives of Carboxylic Acids (SB p.43)

3. Reactions with Ammonia and Amines

Esters react with ammonia to form amides

32.6 Reactions of the Derivatives of Carboxylic Acids (SB p.43)

3. Reactions with Ammonia and Amines

e.g.
Methyl ethanoate reacts with ammonia
form ethanamide and methanol

32.6 Reactions of the Derivatives of Carboxylic Acids (SB p.43)

3. Reactions with Ammonia and Amines

Esters react with 1o or 2o amines in a

similar way
form N-substituted and N, Ndisubstituted amides respectively

32.6 Reactions of the Derivatives of Carboxylic Acids (SB p.43)

3. Reactions with Ammonia and Amines

e.g.
Methyl ethanoate reacts with propylamine
(a 1o amine)
give N-propylethanamide (a 2o amide)

32.6 Reactions of the Derivatives of Carboxylic Acids (SB p.44)

Reactions of Amides
Amides are the least reactive carboxylic
acid derivative towards nucleophilic
substitution reactions
NH2 ion (NHR or NR2 ion) is a
strong base
thus a poor leaving group

32.6 Reactions of the Derivatives of Carboxylic Acids (SB p.44)

1. Hydrolysis of Amides

When amides are heated with an

aqueous acid or an aqueous base
undergo hydrolysis
form carboxylic acids and
carboxylates respectively

32.6 Reactions of the Derivatives of Carboxylic Acids (SB p.44)

Acid-catalyzed Hydrolysis

32.6 Reactions of the Derivatives of Carboxylic Acids (SB p.44)

Alkali-catalyzed Hydrolysis

32.6 Reactions of the Derivatives of Carboxylic Acids (SB p.44)

2. Dehydration of Amides
Amides are dehydrated by
heating with phosphorus(V) oxide
(P4O10)
form nitriles

Example 32-6

The END

32.2 Nomenclature of Carboxylic Acids and their Derivatives (SB p.25)

Back

Example 32-2A

Give the IUPAC names for the following

compounds:
(a)

(b)

(c)

(d)

(a)
(b)
(c)
(d)

3-Methylbutanoic acid
N-Methylethanamide
Ethyl benzoate
Benzoic anhydride

Answer

32.2 Nomenclature of Carboxylic Acids and their Derivatives (SB p.26)

Example 32-2B
An ester is formed by reacting an alcohol with a
carboxylic acid. Draw the structural formulae of
the following esters and in each case, give the
names of the alcohol and the carboxylic acid that
form the ester.
(a) Methyl ethanoate

(a) The structural formula of methyl ethanoate is:

It is formed from the reaction of ethanoic acid and

methanol.

Answer

32.2 Nomenclature of Carboxylic Acids and their Derivatives (SB p.26)

Example 32-2B

Back

An ester is formed by reacting an alcohol with a

carboxylic acid. Draw the structural formulae of
the following esters and in each case, give the
names of the alcohol and the carboxylic acid that
form the ester.
(b) Ethyl methanoate

(b) The structural formula of ethyl methanoate is:

Answer

It is formed from the reaction of methanoic acid and

ethanol.

32.2 Nomenclature of Carboxylic Acids and their Derivatives (SB p.26)

Check Point 32-2

Complete the following table.

Molecular
Structural
formula
formula
C3H7COOH

(a)

Answer
IUPAC name
(b)

(c)

(d)

(e)

(f)

(g)

(h)

Trichloroethan
oic acid

32.2 Nomenclature of Carboxylic Acids and their Derivatives (SB p.26)

Check Point 32-2

(a)

Back

(b) Butanoic acid

(c) CH3CH(CH3)CH2COOH (d) 3-Methylbutanoic acid

(e) C6H4ClCOOH
(g) CCl3COOH (h)

(f) 2-Chlorobenzoic acid

32.3 Physical Properties of Carboxylic Acids (SB p.29)

Example 32-3
(a)Propanoic acid has a boiling point of 141C
which is considerably higher than that of
butan-1-ol (117C), although they have the
same molecular mass. Explain why.

Answer

32.3 Physical Properties of Carboxylic Acids (SB p.29)

Example 32-3
(a) Each propanoic acid molecule forms two intermolecular hydrogen
bonds with other propanoic acid molecules. However, each butan1-ol molecule can form only one intermolecular hydrogen bond with
other butan-1-ol molecules. Since molecules of propanoic acid
form more extensive intermolecular hydrogen bonds than those of
butan-1-ol, the boiling point of propanoic acid is higher than that of
butan-1-ol.

32.3 Physical Properties of Carboxylic Acids (SB p.29)

Example 32-3
(b) Arrange the following compounds in
decreasing order of solubility in water:
CH3CH2CH2COOH, CH3CH2COOCH3, CH3COOH
(b) The solubility of the compounds in water decreases in
the order:
CH3COOH > CH3CH2CH2COOH > CH3CH2COOCH3

Answer

32.3 Physical Properties of Carboxylic Acids (SB p.29)

Example 32-3
(c)Propanedioic acid forms intramolecular
hydrogen bonds. Draw its structural formula,
showing clearly the formation of
intramolecular hydrogen bonds.
Answer
(c)

Back

32.4 Preparation of Carboxylic Acids (SB p.32)

Check Point 32-4

Write the chemical equations for the acidcatalyzed and alkali-catalyzed hydrolyses of
each of the following compounds:
(a) Ethyl butanoate
(a)

Answer

32.4 Preparation of Carboxylic Acids (SB p.32)

Check Point 32-4

Write the chemical equations for the acidcatalyzed and alkali-catalyzed hydrolyses of
each of the following compounds:
(b) Propanamide
(b)

Answer

32.4 Preparation of Carboxylic Acids (SB p.32)

Check Point 32-4

Back

Write the chemical equations for the acidcatalyzed and alkali-catalyzed hydrolyses of
each of the following compounds:
(c) Benzoyl chloride
(c)

Answer

32.5 Reactions of Carboxylic Acids (SB p.35)

Check Point 32-5

Outline how a mixture of butanone and
ethanoic acid can be separated in the
Answer
laboratory.

Back

32.5 Reactions of Carboxylic Acids (SB p.37)

Example 32-5
(a)Complete and balance the following chemical
equations:
(i)
(ii)

Answer

32.5 Reactions of Carboxylic Acids (SB p.37)

Example 32-5
(a) (i)

(ii)

32.5 Reactions of Carboxylic Acids (SB p.37)

Example 32-5
(b)

Complete the following chemical equations:

(i)

(ii)

(iii)

Answer

32.5 Reactions of Carboxylic Acids (SB p.37)

Example 32-5
(b) (i)

(ii)

(iii)

Back

32.6 Reactions of the Derivatives of Carboxylic Acids (SB p.41)

Check Point 32-6

Explain why ethanoyl chloride must be
protected from atmospheric moisture during
storage.
Answer
This is because ethanoyl chloride reacts
readily with water (from atmospheric
moisture) to form ethanoic acid.

Back

32.6 Reactions of the Derivatives of Carboxylic Acids (SB p.42)

Let's Think 1
The characteristic reaction of the derivatives of
carboxylic acids is nucleophilic acyl substitution.
Arrange the derivatives of carboxylic acids in
decreasing order of reactivity towards nucleophilic acyl
substitution.
Acyl chlorides > acid anhydrides > esters > amides

Back

Answer

32.6 Reactions of the Derivatives of Carboxylic Acids (SB p.45)

Example 32-6
Draw the structural formulae of the missing
compounds A to H:
(a)
(b)

(c)

Answer

32.6 Reactions of the Derivatives of Carboxylic Acids (SB p.45)

Example 32-6
(a)

(b)

(c)

32.6 Reactions of the Derivatives of Carboxylic Acids (SB p.45)

Example 32-6
Draw the structural formulae of the missing
compounds A to H:
(d)
(e)
(f)

Answer

32.6 Reactions of the Derivatives of Carboxylic Acids (SB p.45)

Example 32-6
(d)

(e)

(f)

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