Transmission Line

MICROWAVE COMMUNICATION
ENGINEERING
MODULE II
Microwave Transmission Lines
By Sachin Ruikar
11/17/16
Ruikar Sachin, Walchand College of Engg, Sangli
Syllabus
Review of transmission line theory, transmission
line equations, reflection coefficient and
transmission coefficient, standing waves and
standing wave ratio, line impedance and
admittance, Smith chart and impedance
matching, microwave coaxial line
Various Types Of
Transmission Line
As the name suggests, the transmision line is a structure which can

transport electrical energy from one point to another.
At low frequencies, a transmission line consists of two linear conductors
separated by a distance. When an electrical source is applied between
the two conductors, the line gets energized and the electrical energy
flows along the length of the conductors.
A
two-conductor transmission
line may
appear
11/17/16
Ruikar Sachin,
Walchand
Collegein any of the forms
3
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shown in the figure
Various Types Of
Transmission Line
Co-axial cable
Consists of a solid conducting rod surrounded by the two conductors. This line has
good isolation of the electrical energy and therfore has low Electromagnetic
Interference (EMI).
Parallel wire transmission line
Consists of two parallel conducting rods. In this case the electrical energy is
distributed between and around the rods. Theoretically the electric and magnetic
fields extend over infinite distance though their strength reduces as the distance from
the line. Obviously this line has higher EMI.
Microstrip line
Consists of a dielectric substrate having ground plane on one side and a thin metallic
strip on the other side. The majority of the fields are confined in the dielectric
substrate between the strip and the ground plane. Some fringing field exist above the
substrate which decay rapidly as a function of height. This line is usually found in
printed circuit boards at high frequencies.
Balanced and Un-balanced line
If the two conductors are symmetric around the ground, then the line is called the
balanced line, otherwise the line is an un-balanced line. Transmission lines (a), (c)
and (d) are un-balanced line, whereas the line (b) is a balanced line.
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Ruikar Sachin, Walchand College

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Coaxial Cable Applications

In practice, it is usually unnecessary to
find the impedance of coaxial cable since
the impedance is part of the cable
specification
As indicated in the table, there are
standard impedances for coaxial cable
Impedance
Application
Typicaltypenumbers
50
RadioTransmitters
CommunicationsReceivers
RG8/U
RG58/U
75
CableTelevision
TVAntennafeedlines
of Engg, Sangli
Computernetworks
RG59/U
(ohms)
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93
5
RG62/U
Transmission Line Parameters

Types of Circuit
Lumped
Distributed
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Lumped Circuit Model
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Distributed Circuit Elements
The distributed parameters can be defined per unit length of the line.
R = Resistance of both conductors together for unit length of the line (ohms/m)
L = Inductance (self and mutual) for both conductors together for unit length of the line (Henery/m)
C = Capacitance between two conductors for unit length of the line (Farad/m)
G = Leakage conductance between

conductors
for unit
length of the line (Mho/m).
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Ruikartwo
Sachin,
Walchand
College
8
of Engg, Sangli
Transmission Line parameter

Primary line constant
Secondary line constant
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Primary line constant
Resistance( R):
Transmission lines are made up of the conducting wires. These are not
pure conductors and have some resistance per unit length (km or mile) depending
on type of conductor used. Hence, resistance does exist throughout the wire.
Inductance (L):
A wire carrying current gives rise to inductance. Since current is present in
the line, the conductor is surrounded and linked by magnetic flux and this
phenomenon demonstrates its effect in the distributed inductance all along the
lines.
Capacitance (C):
Capacitance is formed when two conducting wires are separated by a
dielectric material in between them. Transmission lines also have two current
carrying conductors and dielectric between them. The dielectric may be air (e.g.
open wire) or core material or dielectric substrate; thus, the distributed capacitance
exists throughout the wire.
Conductance (G):
The dielectric or insulator of the transmission line may not be perfect.
Because of leaky capacitance, a leakage current flows and leakage conductance
(G) exists between the conductor throughout its length.
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Common Transmission Line
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Distributed parameters of a two

conductor Transmission line
RL
CG
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Secondary Line Constant

The characteristic impedance (Z0),
propagation constant ( ), attenuation
constant ( ) and phase constant () are
called as Secondary line constants.
These are again expressed per unit length
of the fine. These constants vary with
frequency and also depend on primary
line constants. But primary line constants
are independent of frequency.
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Relation between Primary &

Secondary Line constant
As in Fig. consider a short length line of l

kilometer long. The short line has a resistance R
l, inductance L l, capacitance C l.
( R JL)l
1
Total
shunt
impedance
=
Z
2
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(GSangli
JC )l
of Engg,
Total Series impedance = Z 1
ohms
ohms
14
Determination of Zo in terms of
primary constant
For a T section, the characteristics imp(Zo)
Zo
Z12
Z1 Z 2
4
Z 1 ( R JL)l
Putting
in above equation gives,
Z0
and Z2 =
1
(G JL)l
( R JL) 2 l 2 ( R JL)
4
(G JC )
As l 0 , the line impedance will be equal to characteristics

impedance
Zo
( R JL)
(G JC )
Z
Y
Where, Z = (R + JL) Ruikar

= Total
series impedance per unit length
Sachin, Walchand College
Y = (G+jC) = Total shunt
admittance
per unit length
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Sangli
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Determination of Zo in terms
of primary constant
Charecteristics impedance in terms of
magnitude & phase
1
2
1
tan
R 2 2 L2
R
Zo
Zo Zo
2
2 2
G
C tan 1 C
G
i.e.
L
1
1
Zo 4 2
.
.(tan
)
(tan
)
2 2
R
G
G C 2
2
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Determination of Zo in terms
of primary constant
when is small (low frequency)
Zo
R
G
When is large (high frequency)

Zo
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C

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Determination of propagation
constant ( )in terms of primary
For T network
Z1
Zo
1
2Z 2
Z2
By putting values of Z1 & Z2 , we get
( R JL)(G JC )l
l
e 1
Zo(G JC )l
2
2
Then
( R JL)(G JC ) 2
e 1 ( ( R JL)(G JC .).l
.l ...............(d )
2
l
The exponential term
l
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e l
can be expressed as
e 1 l l .........................................(e)
2Ruikar
2 Sachin, Walchand College
of Engg, Sangli
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Determination of propagation
constant ( )in terms of primary
By comparing equation (d) & (e) , we get
( R JL)(G JC ) ZY
But
can be written in terms of magnitude & phase form
J P P cos JP sin
Propagation constant can be written as in terms attenuation constant per unit
length & Phase constant per unit length.
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Determination of & in terms

of primary constant
Propagation constant can be written in terms of magnitude & Phase form
1
L
C
( R L )(G C ) . . tan
tan
2
R
G
4
Thus
4 ( R 2 2 L2 )(G 2 2 C 2 ) J .
2 2
OR
( R L )(G C )
2
( 2 2 ) ( R 2 2 L2 )(G 2 2 C 2 ) ...................( a )
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Determination of & in terms

of primary constant
J
( R JL)(G JC )
( J ) ( R JL)(G JC )
2
2 2 2 J ( RG JLC JCR 2 LC )........

Comparing real part of the equations, we get,
2 2 ( RG 2 LC )..........................(b)
Adding equation (a) and (b) , we get,
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(R L )(G C ) (RG LC )
1
2 (R L )(G C ) (RG LC )
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Practical values of Zo, & for

underground cable
R L,.and .G C
Characteristics Impedance can be found as
( R JL )
(G JC )
Zo
JC
R
45
C
And propagation constant
( R JL)(G JC ) JCR CR 45
RC cos(45 0 ) J RC sin 45 0

RC
2
RC
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RC
2
( J )
RC

Nepers /km
2
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radians / km
22
DISTORTIONS IN A
TRANSMISSION LINE
Types of Line Distortions
Frequency distortion
Phase (delay) distortion
Impedance distortion
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Loading of Transmission Line

There are two types of loading
Continuous loading
In this, a tape of iron or some magnetic materials such as mu metal (u-metal)
is wound around the conductor to be loaded, thus increasing the permeability

of surrounding medium and hence, increasing the conductance
Example: submarine cable
Lumped loading
Here, loading coils are introduced at uniform space (interval) on the
transmission line. The loaded line behaves as if inductance is uniformly
increased at all frequencies upto cut-off frequency. Beyond cut-off frequency,
the attenuation increases very sharply and the line behaves like a low-pass
filter.
Example: telephone cable
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Effects of loading:
Effect of proper loading (continuous or lumped loading), on the
secondary constants of the line may be summed up as below.
(1) Characteristic impedance (Z0) is increased and becomes
practically a pure resistance.
(2) The attenuation constant () is reduced and becomes practically
constant over the working frequency range.
(3) The phase constant () is increased and the velocity of
propagation is reduced to a value which is practically constant over
the working frequency range.
Thus, loading is very useful in telephone lines and is very extensively
used.
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TRANSMISSION LINE
EQUATIONS
Both Electric and Magnetic fields are present in the

transmission lines
These fields are perpendicular to each other and to the direction of wave
propagation for TEM mode waves, which is the simplest mode, and assumed for
most simulators(except for microstrip lines which assume quasi-TEM, which is
an approximated equivalent for transient response calculations).
Electric field is established by a potential difference between

two conductors.
Implies equivalent circuit model must contain capacitor.
Magnetic field induced by current flowing on the line

Implies equivalent circuit model must contain inductor.
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TRANSMISSION LINE EQUATIONS

Voltage & current equations for small
section of a line
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V ( Rx JLx ) I
I (Gx JCx )V
V
( R JL ) I
x
I
(G JC )V
Walchand College
x Ruikar Sachin,
of Engg, Sangli
27
Now if the lumped circuit model should be valid for

arbitrarily high frequency (i.e. arbitrarily small ), the
analysis has to be carried out in the limit X 0
lim
x o
lim
x o
V
dV
( R JL ) I
x
dx
I
dI
(G JC )V
x
dx
d 2V
dI
(
R
L
)
dx 2
dx
BY Putting the value of dI/dx , we get
d 2V
2
(
R
L
)(
G
C
)
V
V
2
dx
d 2I
dV
(
G
C
)
dx 2
dx
By putting the value of dV/dx
d 2I
L )(
G Walchand
JC
)I 2 I
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Ruikar
Sachin,
College
dx
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TRANSMISSION
LINE
EQUATIONS
2
d V
2
V
2
dx
d 2I
2
I
2
dx
Thus both voltage & current are governed by
Linear Differential equation
The solution of the above equations can be written as
x
V V e
V e
I I e x I e x
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Ruikarequations
Sachin, Walchand College
These
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v(t ) V e jt e x V e jt e x
i (t ) I e jt e x I e jt e x
but J
jt ( J ) x
v(t ) V e e
jt ( J ) x
V e e
i (t ) I e jt e ( J ) x I e jt e ( J ) x
BY separating the terms we get
v(t ) V e x e Jt Jx V ex e Jt Jx
i (t ) I e x e Jt Jx I ex e Jt Jx
t x phase(V ) for forward travelling wave
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t x phaseRuikar
(V Sachin,
) forWalchand
backward
College travelling wave30
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Physical Interpretation of
Voltage & Current Solution
V ( x) V e x V e x
Forward travelling wave x
Backward traveeling wave x

I ( x) I e x I e x
d x
[V e V e x ] ( R JL)[ I e x I e x ]
dx
V e x V e x ( R JL)[ I e x I e x ]
coefficient of e x :
V ( R JL) I
coefficient of e x :
V ( R JL) I
Since, ( R JL)(G JC )
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Physical Interpretation of
Voltage & Current Solution
V ( R JL)
R JL
Zo
G JC
and
V
( R JL)
R JL
Zo
G JC
V V e x V e x
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V x V x
I
e
e
Walchand College
Zo Ruikar Sachin,
Zo
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Lossless & Distortion less line

Lossless Line ( R G 0)
R JL
G JC
Zo
L
Z0
C
propagatio n Constant
( R JL )(G JC )
for above conditions
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LC
LC
0
1
RuikarSachin, Walchand College
of Engg,
Sangli
LC
33
Distortionless line
Distortionless line RC LG
from equations
2 ( RG J LC ) 2
( RG J LC ) J
RG
LC
put the value of
LC
LC
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STANDING WAVES AND

IMPEDANCE
TRANSFORMATION
How standing waves are formed on a line?
The voltage and current on the line are superposition of the two waves travelling
in the opposite directions.
Where l is the distance measured from the load towards the generator l=-x.
The general equation of line are

V V e x V e x
I I e x I e x
Now for the distance l of load end
V (l ) V e l V e l
I (l ) I e l I e l
Incident Wave V e x V e l
Reflected wave V e x V e l
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Voltage Reflection Co-efficient and

its Relation to Load Impedance
As a measure of reflected energy we define a quantity called '

Voltage Reflection Coefficient ' as
Reflection coefficient (l )
V e l
V 2l
(l )
e
l
V e
V
(l ) represents the reflection coefficient at a
distance of ' l ' from load end
Larger value of reflection coefficient indicates
more reflection from load.
Substituti ng above equation in V(l ) & I(l )
V (l ) V e l [1 (l )]
V l
I (l )
e [1Ruikar
Sachin,
(l )]Walchand College
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Zo
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Impedance
Impedance seen at any distance l from the load in terms of the ' Reflection
Coefficient ' then is
1 (l )
V (l )
Z (l )
Zo
I (l )
1 (l )
Cross multiplying & simplifying, we get
Z (l ) Zo
Z (l ) Zo
Above equation gives reflection coefficient at a distance of
' l ' from load end. When l 0, we have Z(l ) Z R , hence we get
(l )
(0) L
Z R Zo
Z R Zo
Where L is the reflection coefficent at the load end &is defined as

V Re felected voltage at load end
L
V
Incident voltage at load end
Reflection coefficient can also be defined in terms of current
I Re felected current at load end
L
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I
Incident current at load
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Impedance at any point
Reflection coefficient (l )
V e l V 2l
(l ) l e L e 2l
V e
V
The voltage & current at any location on the line
as give by the equation
V (l ) V e l [1 L e 2l ]
V l
I (l )
e [1 L e 2l ]
Zo
The input impedance at any point on the line is given by
[1 L e 2l ]
Z (l ) Zo
2l
[
1
e
]
L
Substituti ng from L equation into above equation
Z (l ) Zo
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Z R Z O l
e

Z R ZO
Z R Z O l
e Walchand
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College
Sangli
Z R Z O of Engg,
38
Impedance at any point

( Z R Z O )e l ( Z R Z O )e l
Z (l ) Zo
l
l
(
Z
Z
)
e
(
Z
Z
)
e
R
O
R
O
Rearranging the above equation, gives

Z R (e l e l ) Z O (e l e l )
Z (l ) Zo
l
l
l
l
Z R (e e ) Z O (e e )
e l e l
e l e l
Since sinh l
and cosh l
2
2
Z R cosh l Zo sinh l
Z (l ) Zo
Z
sinh
Zo
cosh
l
R
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Voltage Standing Wave Ratio

The maximum and minimum peak voltages measured
on the line are
In telecommunications,
standing wave ratio (SWR)
is the ratio of the amplitude
of a partial standing wave at
an antinode (maximum) to
the amplitude at an adjacent
node (minimum), in an
electrical transmission line.
Let us define a quantity called ' Voltage Standing

Wave Ratio (VSWR) ' as
Substituting for
and
we get
VSWR is accurate indicator of reflection coefficient on the transmission line.

Vmax > Vmin. And is always greater than 1.
It could be infinity when Vmin=0.
Since, =1 corresponds to
Similarly, = infinity,
=0 (No reflection).
corresponds to L
For efficient power delivery to the load
small as possible.
=1 (FULL).
and L
should be as
VSWR=1, corresponds to max power transfer.

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VSWR = ofinfinity(
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no power delivery to the load.
Return Loss & Reflection Co-efficient

The return loss is defined as
Return loss (RL) 20log L
dB
The return loss indicates the factory by which the reflected signal is down
compared to the incident signal.
For perfect match L 0 and the return loss is , whereas for the worst
case of L 1 the return loss is 0 db.
Higher the return loss better is the match.
For acceptable value of VSWR 2,
VSWR- 1 2 - 1 1
L
VSWR 1 2 1 3
Return loss (RL) - 20log(1/3) 9.54
The return loss should be higher than 9.54.
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Impedance Variation on Transmission Line

The general equation of line in terms of reflection coefficent are,
V (l ) V e jl 1 L e j ( 2 l )
V
I (l )
Zo
e jl 1 L e j ( 2 l )
1
V (l )
Z (l )
Zo
I (l )
1
Z
Substituti ng L R
ZR
L e j ( 2 l )
L e j ( 2 l )
Zo
Zo
ZR
1
V (l )
ZR
Z (l )
Zo
I (l )
1 ZR
ZR
Zo j ( 2 l )
e
Zo
Zo j ( 2 l )
e
Zo
Rearranging terms of Z & Zo and noting that

e jl e - jl 2 cos l
and e jl e - jl 2 j sin l
Z L cos l jZo sin l
Zo cos l jZ L sin l
Z (l ) Zo
OR interms of normalise impedance

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Z L cos lRuikar
j sin
l Walchand College
Sachin,
Sangli
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cos l jZ L sin l
Z (l ) Zo
42
Impedance Variation on Transmission Line

The maximum impedance occurs where the voltage is maximum and
current is minimum and its value is
Z (l ) max
1 L
Vmax
Zo
I min
1 L
Rmax
Noting that quantity inside the square brackets is the VSWR, we get
Rmax Zo
Similarly, the minimum impedance occurs at a location where the voltage
is minimum and the current is maximum,
Z (l ) min
1 L
Vmin
Zo
I max
1 L
Rmin
Rmin Zo /
The magnitude of the impedance at any point on the loss-less line is bounded by
and
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Special Cases of Line Termination

Impedance of the line are
Z L cosh l Zo sinh l
Z (l ) Z in (l ) Zo
Zo
cosh
Z
sinh
l
L
for lossy
simplifying the equation j for lossless

Z L jZo tan l
Z (l ) Zo
Zo
jZ
tan
l
L
a ) Shorted line Z L Z R 0
Zin JZo tan l
L 1
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Special Cases of Line Termination

b) Open circuited Line Z L
Zin JZo cot l
L 1

c) Matched Load
Zin Zo
L 0
1
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The standing wave patterns provide the top envelopes that bound
the time-oscillations of voltage and current along the line. In other
words, the standing wave patterns provide the maximum values
that voltage and current can ever establish at each location of the
transmission line for given load and generator, due to the
interference of incident and refelected wave.
The patterns present a succession of maxima and minima which
repeat in space with a period of length /2, due to constructive or
destructive interference between forward and reflected waves. The
patterns for a loss-less line are exactly periodic in space, repeating
with a /2 period.
Again, note that although we talk about maxima and minima of the
standing wave pattern we are always examining a maximum of
voltage or current that can be achieved at a transmission line
location during any period of oscillation.
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The voltage standing wave pattern provides immediate information
on the transmission line circuit
If the load is matched to the transmission line ( ZR = Z0 ) the
voltage standing wave pattern is flat, with value | V+ |.
If the load is real and ZR > Z0 , the voltage standing wave
pattern starts with a maximum at the load.
If the load is real and ZR < Z0 , the voltage standing wave
pattern starts with a minimum at the load.
If the load is complex and Im(ZR ) > 0 (inductive reactance),
the voltage standing wave pattern initially increases when
moving from load to generator and reaches a maximum first.
If the load is complex and Im(ZR ) < 0 (capacitive reactance),
the voltage standing wave pattern initially decreases when
moving from load to generator and reaches a minimum first.
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Graphical Approach for Transmission Analysis
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Impedance Matching
A number of techniques can be used to eliminate reflections when
the characteristic impedance of the line and the load impedance are
mismatched.
Impedance matching techniques can be designed to be effective for
a specific frequency of operation (narrow band techniques) or for a
given frequency spectrum (broadband techniques).
A common method of impedance matching involves the insertion of
an impedance transformer between line and load
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Impedance Matching
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Impedance Matching
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Impedance Matching
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Impedance Matching
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Impedance Matching
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Impedance Matching
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Impedance Matching
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Single stub impedance matching
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of Engg, Sangli
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of Engg, Sangli
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of Engg, Sangli
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of Engg, Sangli
97
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of Engg, Sangli
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of Engg, Sangli
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Double stub impedance matching
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MICROWAVE COMMUNICATION

Ruikar Sachin, Walchand College of Engg, Sangli

As the name suggests, the transmision line is a structure which can

Ruikar Sachin, Walchand College

Coaxial Cable Applications