CEB574

United States Sports Academy
CEB 574
Athlete Development
Athlete Centered, Coach Driven, Research Supported
Part of the
American Coaching Program
William J Price
wprice@ussa.edu

One Academy Drive
Daphne, Alabama, USA
American Coaching Program

Courses offered in the program
Sports Administration for Coaches
Coaching Methods
Sports Medicine for the Coach
Strength and Conditioning
Sports Psychology
Athlete Development
2012 United States Sports Academy
Course overview
5 days
4 days of presentation and activities
1 day for review and final exam
Textbook for this course:
Balyi, I. & Williams, C. (2009). Coaching the
young developing performer. Leeds, England:
Sport Coach UK
Who is this course for?

Sport administrators
Coaches
Teachers
Anyone who has contact with
children and young athletes
throughout their development
William J Price
Doctoral student at United States Sports
Academy
Coached swimming for over 30 years in Florida,
Illinois, Vermont, Malaysia, and Brunei
Master of Science thesis examined sport system
in former Soviet Union
CEB 574 Athlete Development

What is Athlete Development?
What problem does LTAD address?

All sport governing bodies want to
know
Where do athletes come from?
How should they be trained?
How to avoid dropout
All of these can be explained if we can
find the answer to one question..
How does an athlete get to here?
Michael Phelps
24-year-old Olympic
champion
From here?
Michael Phelps?
8-year old 4 x 50 freestyle

relay
9
The athlete development process

Philosophy
Strategy
Management Process
Development Model
10
Philosophy
Help to create an environment for
Physical literacy
Success
Fitness
Pleasure
Life long participation
11
Strategy
Provide the best possible experience for all young athletes so
that:
Sport is fun, educational, and challenging
Athletes remain engaged in healthy activity as long as
possible
Athletes are encouraged to remain active throughout their
lives
Each stage of development leads logically to the next
All training and competition is developmentally appropriate
Prevent dropout and increase the size of the athlete pool
12
Question
What is the primary ingredient needed for
national and international sport success?
a) trained coaches
b)facilities
c) athletes
d)effective national governing body
Without athletes there is no sport program!
13
Answer
What is the primary ingredient needed for
national and international sport success?
a) trained coaches
b)facilities
c) athletes
d)effective national governing body
Without athletes there is no sport program!
14
All sport programs should be

Athlete Centered
15
Athlete Development
Athlete Centered
Coach Driven
Administratively Supported
16
Attrition based success

Group success in sport depends on
numbers
Club A with 100 volleyball players is
usually more successful than Club B
that has only 50
Country A with 200,000 swimmers is
usually more effective than country B
that has less than 100,000
17
Quantity matters
Those with more facilities have an
advantage over those with fewer
Countries with more Olympic
weightlifting coaches will probably do
better than those with fewer
The more gymnasts your club, team,
school, or country has the better you
will be at gymnastics
18
Quantity allows better selection

If you have 100 apples to choose
from, the chances are high that you
will be able to find 10 tasty apples
If you have only 20 apples to choose
from your chances of finding 10 tasty
ones are much lower
19
Developing an Olympic team

12-15 years before selection, start with as many
athletes as possible (appreciate the power of
numbers)
Teach all of them everything that will help them be
better athletes (starting with physical literacy)
Recognize that some will dropout but do everything
possible to prevent it
Insist on appropriate athlete training methods
Implement sensible competitive schedules
Believe the science: Learn it, love it, live it!
20
Know the science

Understand what should be happening at each
stage of development
Athlete development is a philosophy and a
management process
No one person, group, or governing body is
responsible for every stage, but everyone involved
needs to understand each stage
Focus on the process, not the outcome
Athlete development is process oriented
21
Where do athletes come from?

Clubs
Park districts
Recreation programs
Training camps &

clinics
Schools
Colleges
Government programs
Trade unions
Summer leagues
National Governing
Bodies (NGBs)
YMCAs
Educational
organizations
National Olympic Councils
IGB franchise holders
22
Program ingredients
Promote fun
Develop physical literacy
Encourage multi-sport (activity)
participation
Avoid dropout
Use appropriate training methods
23
Age group sports training

Age group training programs are based on
chronological age
Early maturers receive more attention since they are
usually bigger, stronger, and faster than their sameage peers
Because of poor performance relative to early
maturers, it is assumed that late maturers do not
have talent in the activity
Better athletes advance while others become
discouraged, dropout, or both
24
Typical age group sport pyramid

At each level the number of participants
shrinks
Those who do not advance are
frequently eliminated or else theyElite
dropout
System is good at identifying Advanced
early maturers but not good
athletes
Intermediate
Identifies talent only by
accident
Novice
25
Athletes not involved in sport

training
Athletes in a sports
training program
Number of athletes diminishes

through attrition
AGE
26
Effect of losing late maturers

On the athletes who leave:
Poor sport experience, leave the activity
Less likely to be active throughout life
Children of discouraged or discarded
athletes might develop the same
attitudes toward physical activity
27
Effect of losing late maturers

On sport governing bodies:
Pool of athletes diminished
unnecessarily
Top performers might be leaving before
we even know they are top performers
Identifying talent early is neither
possible nor productive
28
Possible solutions
Create programs that recognize
developmental age as being important
Coaches training
Parent education
Competition structures
29
Result
Larger pool of athletes moving through
the system making team selections
easier
Keeping athletes involved long enough to
make a difference
Physically literate youth who are

equipped with the skills to engage in
an active lifestyle well beyond their
sport years
30
Long term development model

Winning
Competing
Trainin
g
Active
Retirement
Can be entered from
any stage and at any
time
Learni
ng
Fundament
als
Adapted from Balyi,
2009
31
Elements of Athlete Development

Demographics
Physical literacy
Key performance components
10 factors
Training stages
Integration
32

Physical Literacy
Mastery of fundamental
movement and fundamental sport
skills
The Foundation of Athlete

Development
Physical Literacy
The development of fundamental
movement skills and fundamental
sport skills that permit a child to move
confidently and with control, in a wide
range of physical activity, rhythmic,
Colin Higgs
and sport situations.
34
Why physical literacy?

Increase fitness and participation options
Lack of physical skill is a reason not to move,
exercise, or play
Physical literacy might reduce obesity
Not having the skills to participate in sport and
physical activities is a major reason for dropout
A broad base of physical skills lead to optimal
performance in later stages of training
35
Why physical literacy?

Movement plays an important role in the healthy
development of a young child
Proficiency in a wide variety of fundamental
movement skills is the foundation for future sportspecific activities
Teaching sport-specific skills first, results in young
athletes hitting a proficiency barrier
Leads to frustration, failure, incompetence, and a decline
in motivation
Dropout
36
Key concepts
Physical literacy is the foundation of
all sport
Child-centered approaches to
teaching skills is critical
Needs and current abilities (or
inabilities) are more important than
the skills of the sport itself
37
Key concepts
System needs to provide opportunities
for physical literacy to occur
Early childhood
Education
Commercial
Sport clubs
38
Skill development is a cycle

Development begins
at a very young age
Those with skills play
and improve and have
more opportunities to
play
Those with less skill,

play less, improve
less, and have fewer
opportunities to
improve
39
Skill development is a cycle

Not having the skills to play is a
major reason why children dropout of
physical activity and organized sport
For almost every skill the developing
child needs to go through a series of
developmental stages
40
Body grows and matures

Not mature
enough to
learn
fundamental
movement
skills
Optimum time to
learn the
fundamental
movement skills
Ready to learn
Time for
remedial
work
Optimum time to teach

skills
Wide range of movement opportunities
needed
1
Remedial
9
10
11
12
AGE
41
The basic movement skills of 3

activities provide the base for all
other sports
42
Fundamental movement skills (FMS)
43
Questions to ask
Do all children have the
opportunity to be
physically active for at
least 60 minutes per day?
Do they engage in dance
and music activities?
Is there a wide variety of
things that children can
play with?
44
More questions
Do teachers and care-givers
encourage all children to
engage in active play?
Can teachers and caregivers provide basic
instruction to children who
have difficulty with specific
fundamental movement
skills?
45
Being physically illiterate

Children who miss out on physical
literacy suffer several disadvantages
Cant keep the game going, wont be
asked to join in
Unlikely to choose to take part in any
formal sport activity
Choice of life-long healthy activities is
restricted
Restricts opportunities for sporting
excellence
2012 United
States Sports Academy
46

Effect on schools
Students show up in secondary
schools without skills they should
have already learned
Teachers spend lots of time in
remedial work
By now learning remedial skills is
difficult and negative attitudes
toward physical education and
47

Effect on recreation programs
Physically illiterate children are less
likely to take part in recreation
programs (loss for the child)
Reduced enrollment = reduced
revenue
Reduced revenue and participation
make programs vulnerable to budget
cuts
48

Effect on sport organizations
Physically illiterate children typically do not join
organized sport programs
For those who do, remedial work takes time
away from other components of the various
training stages
Reduced number of physically literate children
means a smaller pool of potential athletes
Fewer athletes to choose from = less able
performances at all levels
49
Developing physical literacy in

every child
Challenge with all children but
especially underrepresented groups
Child centered
Parent driven
Club, school, and community
supported
50
Current model: without physical

literacy program
Athletes not involved in sport
training
training program
Number of athletes diminishes

through attrition
AGE
51
With a physical literacy program

Athletes not involved in
sport training but still
involved in physical activity
training program
Number of
Number of athletes still

diminishes through attrition
BUT the pool of athletes is
bigger to start
AGE
52
Who, what, and when?

Ages 0-6
Play games making body
shapes
Play throwing games
Balancing games during
quite times
Jumping, making shapes
in the air
Introduce water activities
Ride a tricycle or bike
If its not fun, dont do it
53

Boys ages 6-9, Girls ages 6-8
Encourage unstructured physical play w/
friends
Continue catching, throwing, hitting, and
running activities
Join multi-sport programs, no
specialization (except in earlyspecialization sports)
Forget about scores in competition,
focus on the game, learning, and having54

Boys ages 9-12, Girls ages 8-11
(This stage ends with the onset of puberty)
Focus on playing at least 2-3 sports in different seasons

Continue to encourage unstructured activity
Enroll in minor sport programs each season, try different
events or position
Participate in land and water based activities
Encourage continued work on the 5 performance components
of speed, strength, endurance, suppleness, and skill
Keep it fun
55
Once a child reaches puberty (onset of

PHV)
the optimum period for learning
fundamental movement skills
and basic sport skills
ENDS!
56
Growth phases
Age
Phase
<1
Very rapid
acceleration
20
1-2
Rapid deceleration
10
3-6
Moderate
deceleration
10
Steady growth
5-6
7-12
Rate
(cm/yr)
13-14
Rapid acceleration
(PHV)
10-11
15-16
Rapid deceleration
5-6
17-20
Slow deceleration
1-4
The
adolescent
growth spurt
20+
Growth ceases
normally
occurs
between the0 ages of
12 and 15 and represents a window
of trainability for stamina and speed.
57
CM
Growth phases by age
25 Very rapid growth

20
15
Very rapid deceleration

Rapid growth
Rapid deceleration
10
5
Physical
literacy
Steady growth
Slow deceleration
AGE
58
Without the basic movement skills, a

child will have difficulty participating in
any sport
1st
2nd
59
Learning fundamental sport skills

before mastering related fundamental
movement skills reduces performance
ability later
60
Physical literacy in early training

stages
Physical literacy must be achieved
prior to the onset of PHV
Stages 1-3 in the Balyi model
Stage 1 in Bompa
Skills not learned in the early stages

will most likely never be mastered
completely
Without physical literacy athletes will
not reach optimum performance
61
Early & late maturers

Children who enter puberty late
have a longer time to refine
fundamental sport skills
BUT
Early maturers are usually seen as
more talented
Get more attention
More instruction
Bigger, stronger, and faster than peers
62
Time spent on skill development

Time to develop
skills
EARLY
Time to develop
skills
AVERAGE
Time to develop skills
LATE
EARLY
1
0
1
1
Males
AVERAGE

8
Female
s
LATE
1
2
1
3
1
4
1
5
1
6
1
7
AGE
63
Effects on early and late maturers

Males
Late maturers are often at a disadvantage in age
group sport
Late maturers are smaller, less muscular and
physically weaker then same age peers
Competing against bigger, stronger, faster players
is not fun but because they spend more time in the
skills development stage they develop greater
potential for success
Early maturers tend to drop out of sport at the end
of adolescence
64
Effects on early and late maturers

Females
Situation is less clear but seems to be
reversed
Late maturers do better in early years
with prepubescent bodies
Early maturers develop sooner and face
pressure to discontinue sport
participation
Late maturers face this same pressure
later on
65
Relative age
The relative age effect causes
situations similar to those experienced
by early and late maturers
A major problem within the system
Procedurally easy to fix but
administratively difficult
A good example of integration and
alignment problems within sport
66

Key Performance Components
The Five Ss: Stamina, Strength,

Suppleness, Speed, Skill
Objective Evaluation of Readiness

& Fitness
Stamina / Metabolic Fitness
(Aerobic/Anaerobic Capacity)
Strength
Suppleness Flexibility / Agility
Speed
Skills
Other Fitness, Health & Medical History
Special Medical / Physical Challenges
68
Setting Goals for All Athletes

Common Goals:
Improved physical appearance
Better overall performance
Have fun
Socialize with others who are active
Learn a new sport or activity
Improve performance in a current sport
69
Stamina (metabolic endurance)

Aerobic (cardiovascular endurance)
Anaerobic (lactate threshold)
Muscular (repetitive movement)
Aerobic and anaerobic power
70
Aerobic endurance
Before puberty endurance improves mostly due to
improvements in economy
Energy cost is less, thus no increase in VO 2 max
Movements become more efficient because of better
skills
VO2 max increases significantly after onset of PHV

Sensitive training period is at onset of PHV and
peaks at about 12-15 years (girls) and 14-16 years
(boys)
Accelerated adaptation occurs during the sensitive
training period
71
Strength
Young athletes show improvements in relative
strength (strength relative to body weight)
Before puberty strength gains are a result of
neurological adaptations, improved coordination,
and exercise
Improvements during and after the accelerated
adaptation period are due to hypertrophy
Accelerated adaptation period:
Girls: near the end and immediately after PHV
Boys: 12-18 months after PHV
72
Speed
Speed refers to
Linear and lateral speed (sprinting and
changing direction)
Multi-direction speed (patterns)
Segment speed (leg and arm speed)
73
SPEED 2 critical periods of adaptation

1st period
Girls
Boys
6-8 years
7-9 years
1st period is related to central nervous system

(CNS) development
Volume and duration of training load is very low
Some challenge to the CNS should occur
2nd period
11-13 years
13-16 years
Anaerobic alactic power and anaerobic alactic

capacity respond to training stimuli
Intervals between 5 and 20 seconds
74
Suppleness (flexibility)
Should be started at the earliest
stage of training
Should be
monitored closely
during and
immediately
after PHV
75
Skills
Critical period for learning skills is prior
to the growth spurt (PHV)
Athletes who do not learn fundamental
movement and sport specific skills prior
to PHV are unlikely to reach optimal
performance
76
Windows of Optimal
Trainability
(female)
Stamina
Onset of
PHV
Speed 1
6-8
years
Skills
8-11 years
Strength
Right after
PHV
Speed 2
11-13
years
Suppleness
6-10 years
5.0 6.0 7.0 8.0 9.0 10.011.012.013.014.015.016.017.018.019.020.0

AGE
77
Windows of Optimal
Trainability
(male)
Stamina
Onset of
PHV
Speed 1
7-9
years
Skills
9-12 years
Strength
12-18 months after
PHV
Speed 2
13-16 years
Suppleness
6-10 years
5.0 6.0 7.0 8.0 9.0 10.011.012.013.014.015.016.017.018.019.020.0

AGE
78
EB 574 Athlete Development

10 Factors Affecting
Athlete Development
10 factors affect athlete

development
Physical literacy
Specialization
Developmental age
Sensitive periods
Physical, mental,
cognitive, and
emotional
development
Periodization
Calendar planning
for competition
System alignment
Excellence takes
time
Continuous
improvement
Adapted from Canadian Sport for Life, 1999

80
Factor 1: Physical literacy

Physical literacy refers to motor competency in
a wide variety of movements and sports
Physical literacy should be established before
the onset of the adolescent growth spurt
Movements not mastered prior to the growth
spurt will most likely never be mastered
All initial sport and physical activities should be
fun
81
Factor 2: Specialization
Specialization refers to 2 separate but
related issues:
Characteristics that make various sports
early- or late-specialization activities (sport
specialization)
Athletes specializing in a single sport
(athlete specialization)
Both affect long term athlete

development
82
Sport specialization
Due to performance characteristics
and training goals
Early specialization sports require
athletes to specialize in them during the
earlier stages of development (skill based)
Late specialization sports can and
should be specialized in during later
stages of development, allowing athletes
time to master fundamental movement
skills (physical literacy)
83
Sport classifications
Group
Training goals
Examples
Perfect the coordination and

form of a skill
Cyclic
Attain a superior speed

in
Running,
specialization
cyclic sports
rowing,
swimming,
cycling
Perfect the strength and

speed of a skill
Weightlifting,
throwing,
jumping
Combine
d
Team sports
(some
individual)
Acyclic
Perfect the skill performed in

a contest with opponents
Perfect the conduct of
different means of travel
Sailing,
horseback
riding,
motorcycling
Combine
d
Gymnastics,
diving
Skill type
Acyclic
Only group that might require early
Perfect the activity of the

6
CNS under stress and low
2012 United States
Sports Academy
physical
involvement
Shooting,
Acyclic
Adapted from Bompa,
chess, archery
1999
84
Early specialization sports

Characteristics
Perfect the coordination and form of a skill
Activities with complex skills that must be learned before
maturation. Mastering these skills after maturation may
not be possible.
The highly complex skills involved take priority over every
other training component
Figure skating, gymnastics, rhythmic gymnastics, and
diving require early specialization
Physical literacy is developed partially within these sports
85
Late specialization sports

Characteristics
Most sports are late specialization
Skills are still important but other
components take priority, usually stamina,
strength, and speed
Physical literacy is critical for late
specialization activities
86
Athlete specialization
The trend toward early athlete specialization is
increasing
Specializing before the age of 10 in late
specialization sports contributes to:
One-sided, sport-specific preparation
Lack of agility, balance, coordination, and speed
(ABCs)
Overuse injuries
Early burnout (dropout for late maturers)
Early retirement from training and competition
87
Specializing for optimal

performance
In late specialization sports
specialization is necessary at some
point to achieve optimal performance
In late specialization sports
specializing too early prevents the
athlete from mastering fundamental
movement skills
88
Factor 3: Developmental age

Developmental age refers to the
degree of physical, mental, cognitive,
and emotional maturity.
Most athletic training and competition
programs are based on chronological
age. However, athletes of the same
age between ages 10 and 16 can be 4
to 5 years apart developmentally.
89
Growth and maturation

Growth
Observable step-by-step changes in quantity
and measurable changes in body size such
as height, weight, and fat percentage.
Maturation
Qualitative system changes, both structural
and functional, in the bodys progress toward
maturity such as the change of cartilage to
bone in the skeleton.
90
Ways of measuring age

Chronological age: number of years and days elapsed since birth
Developmental age: degree of physical, mental, cognitive, and
emotional maturity
Skeletal age: maturity of the skeleton determined by the degree
of ossification of the bone structure
General training age: number of years in training, sampling
different sports
Sport specific training age: number of years since an athlete
decided to specialize in one sport
Relative age: differences in age among children born in the same
calendar year
91
Relative age effect

Occurs when a single date is used to
determine age for an entire season
The later in the year the age
determining date is the stronger the
effect
92
Relative age examples

Ice hockey age determination date: 1
October
An athlete born on 1 January is 9
months older than one born on 1
October but both are the same age for
play purposes
International youth/junior
competitions
Rules that set age groups with
designations
2012 United
States Sports Academy like born in 1998
93
Relative age
The relative age effect causes
situations similar to those experienced
by early and late maturers
A major problem within the system
Procedurally easy to fix
Administratively difficult
A good example of integration and
alignment problems
94
Early vs. late maturers

Athletes of the same age between ages 10 and 16 can
be 4 to 5 years apart developmentally
Some children mature sooner than others
The gap between early and late maturers can be significant
Early maturers have an advantage in strength, power,

endurance, and speed
In early stages of sport participation they also have

advantages in skill
They are bigger, stronger, faster, and technically (skill)

more mature than their same age peers
95

In programs organized by chronological age,
early maturers are frequently identified as
talented or best due to early success
Its normal to think this, but its also wrong
Early success usually means

More likely to get instruction from the coach
Gets more praise from parents and friends
More reinforcement based on success
In typical programs, enjoys the activity more
96

Maturing early has nothing to do with
athletic talent
Early maturers are more capable in the key
sport components sooner than their peers
This does not mean they are better athletes
USA Swimming Sport Science Summit Report: Of
young athletes (10-11 years) identified as top
talent or potentially elite level performers, only
25% were identified that way several years later
97
Late maturers eventually catch up

Late maturers face obstacles to athletic
participation but eventually overcome them (if
they stay involved in sport long enough)
Discouragement from lack of success
Less attention and instruction from coaches
Lower performing in all key components
BUT late maturers usually catch up with their early
maturing peers if they remain in the sport long
enough for growth and development to follow its
normal course
98
When does the growth spurt start?

Determining when the adolescent growth
spurt starts is the key to identifying periods of
accelerated adaptation
Methods:
Skeletal measurements (requires frequent x-rays)
Assessing sexual maturation (requires
information coaches do not have access to)
Measuring peak height velocity (PHV) is the
easiest, noninvasive way to do this
99
Peak height velocity (PHV)

Determination of the fastest rate of growth
Noninvasive
Easy to measure and track longitudinal growth velocity
curves
Simpler definition: determining periods of fastest
growth i.e. a growth spurt
PHV measurements help identify periods of accelerated
adaptation to certain training stimuli
PHV helps determine the developmental age of the
athlete
100
Peak height velocity (PHV)

PHV signals the end of
childhood
and the
beginning of adolescence
101
Growth patterns
The most intense growth spurt occurs immediately
after birth until about the age of 1 year (20
cm/year)
From 1 to 6 years the growth rate declines rapidly
from 20 cm/yr to 10 cm/yr
From 6 to 12 years the rate evens out to about 5 to
6 cm/yr
At around 12 years the adolescent growth spurt
begins and lasts approximately 12-18 months
before decelerating again
102
Growth phases
Age
Phase
<1
Very rapid
acceleration
20
1-2
Rapid deceleration
10
3-6
Moderate
deceleration
10
Steady growth
5-6
7-12
Rate
(cm/yr)
13-14
Rapid acceleration
(PHV)
10-11
15-16
Rapid deceleration
5-6
17-20
Slow deceleration
1-4
The
adolescent
growth spurt
20+
Growth ceases
normally
occurs
between the0 ages of
12 and 15 and represents a window
of trainability for stamina and speed.
103
CM
Growth phases by age
25 Very rapid growth

20
15
Very rapid deceleration

Rapid growthRapid deceleration
10
Steady growth
Slow deceleration
AGE
104
Factor 4: Sensitive periods for

trainability
Trainability is the responsiveness of
developing individuals to training
stimuli at different stages of growth
and maturation
All systems are always trainable
Periods of accelerated adaptation
occur for stamina, strength, speed,
and skills
Trainability and adaptation are
105
Adaptation
Adaptation refers to changes in the
body as a result of a training
stimulus that induced functional or
morphological changes in the
organism
Degree of adaptation depends on
genetic endowment
Trainable systems will adapt to
stimuli
106
Critical periods of development

Point in development of a specific
capacity when training has an
optimal effect (accelerated
adaptation)
Training stimuli are timed to achieve
optimum adaptation regarding skills,
muscle and/or aerobic
endurance/power
107
Optimal windows of trainability

Stamina: Onset of PHV
Aerobic capacity training before PHV
Aerobic power introduced when growth rate
decelerates
Strength: Girls immediately after PHV, boys

12-18 months after PHV
Speed: 2 periods
Girls 6-8 years and 11-13 years
Boys 7-9 years and 13-16
108
Optimal windows of trainability

Skill: Boys 9-12 years; girls 8-11
years
Note that this is the prime period for
developing physical literacy
Suppleness (flexibility): 6-10 years

and special attention should be paid
to flexibility during PHV (note that
this is not an accelerated period of
adaptation)
109
Windows of Optimal
Trainability
(female)
Stamina
Onset of
PHV
Speed 1
6-8
years
Skills
8-11 years
Strength
Right after
PHV
Speed 2
11-13
years
Suppleness
6-10 years
5.0 6.0 7.0 8.0 9.0 10.011.012.013.014.015.016.017.018.019.020.0

AGE
110
Windows of Optimal
Trainability
(male)
Stamina
Onset of
PHV
Speed 1
7-9
years
Skills
9-12 years
Strength
12-18 months after
PHV
Speed 2
13-16 years
Suppleness
6-10 years
5.0 6.0 7.0 8.0 9.0 10.011.012.013.014.015.016.017.018.019.020.0

AGE
111
Factor 5: Physical, mental,

cognitive, and emotional
development
Beyond the physical, technical, and tactical
development including decision-making skills
the mental, cognitive, and emotional development
should be enhanced.
A major objective of LTAD is a holistic approach to
athlete development. Emphasis on:
ethics
fair play
character building throughout the various stages
Programming should be designed considering

athletes cognitive ability to address these concepts.
112
Factor 6: Periodization
Time management designed to
arrange a complex array of training
processes into a logical and
scientifically based schedule
Brings about optimal improvements
in performance
Maximizes gains in different
performance factors
113
4 Performance factors
Physical: related to the key
performance components (5 Ss)
Technical: specific motor skills
needed to take part in the sport
Tactical: strategic planning and
decision making
Mental: concentration, commitment,
anxiety control
114
Physical, Technical, Tactical,

Mental
In straight periodization planning the
emphasis placed on each factor
changes depending on training phase
Also changes due to the age of the
athlete
115
Training cycles
Macrocycle: correspond to an annual or
season plan and are aimed at achieving peak
performance
Mesocycle: smaller bits of macrocycles from 1
to 6 or 7 weeks in duration
Microcycle: 2 to 7 days long with several of
them building into a mesocycle
A microcycle is the tool that determines load
and recovery periods in a mesocycle
116
Factor 7: Calendar planning &

Competition structure
Competitive calendar for most sports is
already established
Difficult to stray from what is widely
accepted
Must work within the established calendar
Young athletes over-compete

and are under-trained.
Istvan Balyi
117
Training to competition ratios

By adjusting the ratio of training to
competition we are able to address important
issues at each stage of development
Early stages need instruction & training more
that competition
Actual ratios should be determined on a sport
specific basis
Team and individual sports can have different
requirements
118
Stage
Recommended training / competition

ratio
Active start
No specific ratios
Physical literacy
All activities are fun based
Learning to train
70% training, 30% competition
Training to Train
Training to
compete
40% training, 60% actual competition

w/specific training
Training to win
25% training, 75% actual competition

w/specific training
Adapted from Balyi,

2009
119
Getting the right mix

Over-competition and under-training
at the learn-to-train and train-to-train
stages result in a lack of basic skills
and fitness
Appropriate levels of competition are
critical to development of
performance factors (mental,
technical, tactical, and physical)
Current competition schedules are
based on tradition
120
Competition structure
Current competitive structures copy
the adult or professional model
Inappropriate for young athletes
In early stages, developing physical
capacities takes precedence over
competition
121
Factor 8: System alignment and

integration
Ideally, athlete development is a national
sport priority directed or encouraged from
the highest level
Can be directed at the team or group level
if necessary
Each sport should design its own
development scheme within the guidelines
The plan should be athlete centered, coach
driven, and administratively supported
122
Alignment affects:
Planning: how sport bodies organize
training and competition
Coach training! If development is
part of program alignment then
coaches training will center on
athlete development principles
Sports culture
123
Factor 9: Excellence takes time

The 10-year rule
A minimum of 10 years or 10,000
hours of deliberate practice is needed
for a talented athlete to reach
optimum performance
Achieving potential takes a long time
124
U.S. Olympic example:

Began sport participation around age
12.0 for boys and age 11.5 for girls
Medalists were younger1.3 to 3.6
yearsduring the first 5 stages (Balyi
model) of development than nonmedalists.
Olympians reported a 12- to 13-year
period of talent development from
Path to Excellence, USOC
their sport introduction to
making an
Olympic team
125
Dropout and burnout

Many reasons why young athletes
leave sports
Only some are controllable
126
Factor 10: Continuous

improvement
New scientific information is
implemented into sport programs
Always looking for better, more
appropriate, and more effective ways
to work
Ways to make the sport experience
better for all are actively sought and
implemented
System and practices are sustainable
127

Training stages
What are training stages?

As children grow and mature the types of
activities they can engage in successfully
change
Children are not small adults
Child and adult are two different human
developmental stages
Different types of activities, training, and

instruction are necessary at different stages
of development
129
Stages of development
4 stages of athletic development as
applied to sports (Bompa)
7 stages of sport development
integrated with human growth and
maturity (Balyi)
3 stages leading to championship
performance (Bloom)
130
3 stages of championship development

(Bloom)
Initiation
Romance
Early years
Develop a love for the activity

Receive encouragement from significant
others
Free to explore
Has lots of fun
Successful
Developme
nt
Precision
Middle years
Long-term systematic skill learning

Focus on skill development and
technical mastery
Work with a master teacher
Perfection
Later years
Integration
Continue to work with master coach

Many hours of practice per day
Specialization in the activity
Talent development is a long term process involving not only the

talented person,
but a strong support system. (Gould, 2004)
131
4 stages of athletic development (Bompa)
Generaliz
ed
Training
Initiation
6-10 years Multi-sport activity

Develop agility coordination and
balance
Focus on overall athletic
development
Not sport specific
Simplify rules
Athletic
formation
11-14
years
Specializat 15-18
ion
years
Specialize
d Training
Design drills that introduce

fundamental tactics and strategies
Emphasize improving flexibility,
coordination and balance
Introduce formalized mental
training
Increase volume of training
Develop a high level of sport
specific efficiency
Developing aerobic capacity is
high priority
High
19+ years Increase training volume and
performan
intensity
2012 United States
Sports Academy
132
7 stages of development (Balyi)

Active start
0-6 years
Fundamentals
6-9 years for boys, 6-8

years for girls
Learning to Train
9-11 (boys), 8-11 (girls)
Training to Train
12-16 (boys), 11-15 (girls)

Age range is PHV
dependent
Training to
Compete
16-23 (boys), 15-21

(girls)
Training to Win
19 (boys), 18 (girls)
Active for Life
Can enter at any age, any

stage
Accelerated
adaptation for skill
acquisition and CNS
speed
Accelerated
adaptation for
stamina and strength
133
Type of sport affects the number

of stages
Early specialization sports in the
Balyi model have fewer training
stages (5) because of the need to
specialize
Late specialization sports have 7
training stages
134
Active start
(0-6 years for boys and girls)
Objective: Learn fundamental

movements and link them together in
play
Physical literacy
Activity for at least 60 minutes per day
Unstructured physical activity active play
Physical activity every day
Provide parents and care-givers with ageappropriate information
135
Active start
(0-6 years for boys and girls)
Encourage basic movement skills

They do not just happen
They develop based on a childs

Heredity
Activity experiences
Environment
Activities should be gender neutral since

boys are usually more active than girls
136
Fundamentals
6-9 years (boys), 6-8 years
(girls)
Objective: Learn all fundamental

movement skills and build overall motor
skills
Physical literacy continues to be developed
Planning and periodization are not needed
but programs are structured and monitored
No specialization, many activities/sports
Use simple calendars such as the school
year for program planning
137
Fundamentals
(girls)
Athletes need to know that the coach is

interested in them, not just the sport
Ask What else have you done this week?
Emphasize fundamental movement skills

and the ABCs
Accelerated adaptation periods occur for:
Skills
Speed 1 (CNS)
138
Fundamentals
(girls)
Practice and master fundamental

movement skills
Emphasize the ABCs
Agility
Balance
Coordination
Speed
Introduce basic flexibility

139
Fundamentals
(girls)
Participation in a wide range of

sports
Games with speed, power,
endurance
Strength training with body weight
and medicine ball exercises
(remember: GAMES)
Simple rules and ethics of sports
Activities revolve around the school
140
Learning to train
9-11 years (boys), 8-11
years (girls)
Objective: Learn overall sports

skills
Accelerated adaptation period occurs
for:
Motor coordination!
General skills (continues)
Single periodization but still no

specialization
Focus should be narrowed to 3 sports
141
Learning to train
9-11 years (boys), 8-11
years (girls)
Introduce hopping or bounding

exercises
Flexibility through exercises
Work on speed by emphasizing
activities focusing on agility,
quickness, and changes of direction
Encourage unstructured play
142
Training to train
12-16 (boys), 11-15 (girls)

** Note that age ranges are PHV dependent **
Objective: Build aerobic base,

develop speed and strength,
further develop and consolidate
sport specific skills
Accelerated adaptation periods for:
Endurance
Speed
Strength
143
Training to train
12-16 (boys), 11-15 (girls)
At onset of PHV aerobic training

takes priority
Emphasize flexibility since rapid
growth can have a diminishing effect
60:40 training/competition ratio
Focus on 2 sports
Single or double periodization
depending on sport
144
Training to train
12-16 (boys), 11-15 (girls)
Coping with physical and mental

challenges of competition
Use talent ID to help athletes focus
on 2 sports
145
REMEMBER:
Most young athletes overcompete
The under-train
learning-to-train and training-toand
train stages are the most important
of all
Too much competition gets in the

way of developing a solid foundation
for future athleticism
146
The Learning-to-Train and

Training-to-Train stages are
the most important stages of
preparation
147
Training to compete
16-23 (boys), 15-21
(girls)
Objective: Optimize the engine

and learn to compete
Include year-round, high intensity,
event specific training
Simulate competition in training
Emphasize optimum preparation
Specialization is appropriate, select 1
sport
148
Training to compete
16-23 (boys), 15-21
(girls)

Periodization (1, 2, or 3) as needed
Model competition in training
149
Training to win
19 boys, 18 girls
Objective: Medal performances

Final stage of athletic preparation
Focus of training is on maximization
of performance
Multiple periodization
The 75% includes competition-specific
training
150
Active retirement
If programs are done properly those
who leave structured competitive
sport behind will be able to move to
lifelong physical activity and
participation in sports
Retirement from organized sport
can happen at any time
The #1 goal of athlete development
is to provide a positive sport
experience for all
151

Alignment and Integration
Management objectives
4 management functions
Find
Keep
Transform
Distribute
Primary function is participant

transformation through application of
knowledge
153
Trends in management
More from less
Diminishing resources (volunteers?)
Future will focus on efficiency
Personal touch
Service sector
Targeting services
Divergent demographics
Population of developed countries declining
Population of poorer countries is increasing
On the move
People are moving around more often
iWorld
Digital world
154
FIND athletes
Understand where this process starts
and the sport organizations role
Most NGBs do not deal with athletes
at the stage where development
actually begins
Hands off development =
development that takes place
outside the NGBs control
How to support it?
155
KEEP athletes
The longer athletes are involved in
sport training the better they will
eventually perform (10-year rule)
Mitigate dropout
Training stages
Competition management
Coach training
Utilize talent identification process

156
TRANSFORM athletes
In human performance nothing works in
isolation
NGBs, coaches, athletes, etc. are affected by
things they can and cannot control
Athlete development paths need to be designed
in harmony with child growth and development
Coach education needs to fit the development
path
What do coaches need to know?
When do they need to know it?
157
TRANSFORM athletes
Athlete transformation is the primary
job of the NGB
What is added to the athlete at
each level to help them perform
better?
158
DISTRIBUTE support
Support has several meanings
Money
Management
Education
Promotion
How can an NGB support its own system?

Athletes
Coaches
Managing the support process is the job of

the NGB
159
Thank You
160

References
Balyi, I. & Williams, C. (2009). Coaching the young developing performer.
Leeds, England: Sport Coach UK.
Bompa, T. (1999). Periodization (4th ed.). Champaign, Illinois: Human
Kinetics.
Gould, D. & Carson, S. (2004). Fun and games?. Youth Studies Australia,
23(1).
Lawrence, M. (1999). Sport science summit report. Colorado Springs,
Colorado: USA Swimming.
Mandigo, J., Francis, N, Lodewyk, K. (2007). Physical literacy concept
paper. Vancouver, British Columbia: Canadian Sport Centers.
Pankhurst, A. (2007). Planning and periodization. Leeds, England: Sport
Coach UK.
Stafford, I. (2005). Coaching for long term athlete development. Leeds,
England: Sport Coach UK.
USOC (n.d.). The path to excellence. Retrieved from:
http://assets.usoc.org/assets/documents/attached_file/filename/4604/Ol
ympian_Report.pdf
161

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