Metrology

Metrology
The science of measurement.
The

purpose

of

this

discipline

is

to

establish means of determining physical

quantities,

such

temperature, force, etc.

as

dimensions,

IAS
Define the terms accuracy and

precision.

Accuracy & Precision

Accuracy - The ability of a measurement to match the

actual (true) value of the quantity being measured. The

expected ability for a system to discriminate between
two settings. Smaller the bias more accurate the data.
Precision - The precision of an instrument indicates its
ability to reproduce a certain reading with a given
accuracy OR it is the degree of agreement between
repeated results.
Precision data have small dispersion ( spread or scatter
) but may be far from the true value.
A measurement can be accurate but not precise,
precise but not accurate, neither, or both.
A measurement system is called valid if it is both
accurate and precise.

Repeatability

It is the ability of a measuring system to

reproduce output readings when the same input

is applied to it consecutively, under the same
conditions, and in the same direction.
Imperfections in mechanical systems can mean
that during a Mechanical cycle, a process does
not stop at the same location, or move through
the same spot each time. The variation range is
referred to as repeatability.

Reliability of measurement

It

is a quantitative characteristic which

implies confidence in the measured results
depending on whether or not the frequency
distribution characteristics of their deviations
from the true values of the corresponding
quantities are known. It is the probability that
the results will be predicted.

Which
of
these
targets
represents
accurate
shooting? Precise shooting?
Reliable shooting?

A change in one variable, such as

wind, alters the results as shown.
Dose this show which shooting
was the most reliable?

Calibration

It is the setting or correcting of a measuring

device usually by adjusting it to match or

conform to a dependably known value or act of
checking.
Calibration
determines
the
performance
characteristics of an instrument, system or
reference material. It is usually achieved by
means of a direct comparison against
measurement standards or certified reference
materials.
It is very widely used in industries.
A calibration certificate is issued and, mostly, a

IFS 2012
Define

and

following

distinguish

characteristics

between
of

the

measuring

instruments:
Accuracy, drift, rule of 10, resolutions, and
sensitivity.

[ 10 Marks]

Drift:

It is a slow change of a metrological

characteristics of a measuring instruments
Resolution: It is the smallest change of the measured
quantity which changes the indication of a measuring
instruments
Sensitivity: The smallest change in the value of the
measured variable to which the instrument respond is
sensitivity. It denotes the maximum changes in an input
signal that will not initiate a response on the output.
Rule of 10 or Ten-to one rule: That the
discrimination (resolutions) of the measuring instrument
should divide the tolerance of the characteristic to be
measured into ten parts. In other words, the gauge or
measuring instrument should be 10 times as accurate
as the characteristic to be measured.

Errors

Systematic errors or fixed errors (Bias):

Due

to

faulty

instruments.

or

These

improperly
may

be

calibrated
reduced

or

eliminated by correct choice of instruments.

Eg. calibration errors, Errors of technique etc.
Random errors: Random errors are due to

non-specific cause like natural disturbances that

may occur during the experiment. These cannot

IAS 2014 (Main)

According to the ISO system, sketch the
basic size, deviation, and tolerance on a
shaft and hole assembly.

Terminology

IES-2015 Conventional
What are the different types of fits possible
with reference to mechanical systems?
[4 Marks]

IFS 2013
Explain, with the help of sketches, the
concepts of hole basis and shaft basis in
terms

of

assembly

fit

specifications.

Which of the two is preferred and why?

[8 Marks]

IAS 2010
What is the difference between hole
basis system and shaft basis system?
Why is hole basis system the more
extensive in use?
[8 Marks]

Hole Basis System

Zero
Line

Hole basis system

The hole is kept as a constant member (i.e. when
the lower deviation of the hole is zero)
Different fits are obtained by varying the shaft
size then the limit system is said to be on a hole
basis.

For hole basis system, H stands for dimensions of holes

whose lower deviation is zero.

The basic size of the hole is taken as the lower limit of

size of the hole ( Maximum metal condition).

The higher limit of size of the hole and two limits of

size for the shaft are then selected to give desired fits.
The actual size of hole is always more than basic size

or equal to basic size but never less than Basic size.

Shaft Basis system

Zero
Line

Shaft basis system:

When the shaft is kept as a constant member (i.e.
when the upper deviation of the shaft is zero)
Different fits are obtained by varying the hole size
then the limit system is said to be on a shaft basis.

For shaft basis system, h stands for dimensions of

shafts whose upper deviation is zero.

Basic size of the shaft is taken Upper limit for the

shaft ( Maximum metal condition)

Lower limit of the shaft and two limits of hole are

selected to give the desired fit.

Actual size of shaft is always less than basic size

or equal to basic size but never more than basic

size.

Why Hole Basis Systems are

Preferred?

Holes can be finished by tools like reamers, drills,

broaches, and their sizes are not adjustable. The

shaft sizes can be easily obtained by external
machining.
If shaft basis system is used considerable no of

reamers and other precision tools are required for

producing different classes of holes for one class of
shaft for obtaining different fits which increases
cost of production.
It is economical

IAS 2014 (Main), IES-2010

Why uni-lateral tolerance is preferred
over bi-lateral tolerance?

Why is a unilateral tolerance

preferred over bilateral tolerance ?
This

system

is

preferred

for

Interchangeable

manufacturing.
It is easy and simple to determine deviations.
It helps standardize the GO gauge end
Helpful for operator because he has to machine

the upper limit of the shaft and the lower limit of

the hole knowing fully well that still some margin is
left for machining before the part is rejected.

IAS-2011 Main

An interference assembly, of nominal diameter

20 mm, is of a unilateral holes and a shafts. The
manufacturing tolerances for the holes are
twice that for the shaft. Permitted interference
values are 0.03 to 0.09 mm. Determine the
sizes, with limits, for the two mating parts.
[10Marks]
Hint: Use unilateral hole basis system.

Using unilateral hole base system;

Min clearance = 0.03mm; Max clearance = 0.09 mm;
Basic size = 20 mm
Refering the figure:2 x 0.03 x 0.09 or x 0.02 mm
size of hole:
Lower limit = 20 mm
Upper limit =20+2x 20+2 0.02=20.04 mm
size of shaft:
Lower limit = 20.04+0.03= 20.07 mm
Upper limit = 20.07+ x =20.07+0.02=20.09 mm

IES-2006 Conventional
Find the limit sizes, tolerances and
allowances for a 100 mm diameter shaft
and hole pair designated by F8h10. Also
specify the type of fit that the above pair
belongs to.
Given: 100 mm diameter lies in the
diameter step range of 80-120 mm. The
fundamental
deviation
for
shaft
designation f is -5.5 D0.41
The values of standard tolerances for
grades of IT 8 and IT 10 are 25i and 64i
respectively.

Basic size =100 mm; D D1 D2

80 120 97.97 mm

Fundamental deviation of shaft

= 5.5 D 0.41 36 m
Fundamental deviation of hole 36 m
1
3

i 0.45D 0.001D 2.1711 m

IT 8 25i 25 2.17 m 54 m
IT 10 64i 64 2.17 m 139 m

Allowance
=
min

IES-2015 Conventional

Determine the fundamental deviation and

tolerances and the limits of size for hole and shaft

pair in the fit: 25 mm H8d9. The diameter steps are
18 mm and 30 mm. The fundamental deviation for
d shaft is given
as -16D0.44. The tolerance unit is,
3

0.45 D 0.001D

i=
The tolerance grade for number 8 quality is 25i and
for 9 quality is 40i.
[10 Marks]

Geometric mean diameter(D) = 18 30 23.238mm

Standard tolerance unit (i) = 0.45 3 D 0.001 D 1.3074 m
Tolerance of hole = 25i = 33m 0.033mm
Tolerance of shaft = 40i = 52m 0.052mm
Fundamental deviation of shaft d = -16D0.44 64 m 0.064mm
Fundamental deviation of hole H = zero
LL of hole = BS =25mm
UL of hole = BS + Tolerance = 25.033mm
UL of shaft = BS +FD = 25- 0.064mm = 24.936mm
LL of shaft = UL - tolerance = 24.936-0.052 = 24.884 mm

Name five main areas into which the

measurement can be divided.

Methods of Measurement
1. Direct method
2. Indirect method e.g density
3. Absolute method or Fundamental

method e.g length form definition

4. Comparison method e.g comparator
5. Deflection method e.g. Dial Indicator

Write

the

tolerance

amount
that

is

of

allowance

permitted

by

and
the

following classes of fit as per ANSI class 4

: Snug fit and class 7 : Medium force fit.
Also mention applications.

American Standard Association Tolerance

System
1. Heavy force shrunk fit
2. Medium force fit
3. Tight fit
4. Wringing fit
5. Snug fit
6. Medium fit
7. Free fit
8. Loose fit

Snug fit
Tolerance = 0.0004D

1/3

and Deviation 0

Medium force fit :

Tolerance = 0.0006D

1/3

and Deviation 0.0005 D 0.0006 D

1/3

Snug fit is applicable where no shake is

permissible
Medium force fit is applicable for shrink fit on

cast iron

IAS 2010
What

are

interchange

the

differences

ability

and

between
selective

assembly?
[4 Marks]

IFS 2011
What

is

meant

by

interchangeable

manufacture?
[2 marks]

Selective Assembly
All the parts (hole & shaft) produced are

measured and graded into a range of

dimensions within the tolerance groups.
Reduces the cost of production

Process capability
No.of group =
Tolerance desired

Interchangeability

Interchangeability,

a maintainability design
factor, is quite closely related to standardization
and is realized through standardization.

If the variation of items

are within certain

limits, all parts of equivalent size will be equally
fit for operating in machines and mechanisms
and the mating parts will give the required
fitting.

This facilitates to select at random from a large

number of parts for an assembly and results in a

considerable saving in the cost of production,
reduce assembly time, replacement and repair

IFS-2015
Define a comparator.
Write at least six desirable features it should
possess.
Also name four types of comparators.
[ 8 Marks]

Comparators
Comparator is another form of linear measuring

method, which is quick and more convenient for

checking large number of identical dimensions.
During the measurement, a comparator is able
to give the deviation of the dimension from the
set dimension.
Cannot measure absolute dimension but can
only compare two dimensions.
Highly reliable.
To magnify the deviation, a number of principles
are used such as mechanical, optical, pneumatic
and electrical.

Fig. Principle of a

Mechanical Comparators
The

Mikrokator
principle
greatly
magnifies any deviation
in size so that even
small
deviations
produce
large
deflections
of
the
pointer over the scale.

Sigma Mechanical Comparator

The Sigma Mechanical Comparator uses a
partially wrapped band wrapped about a driving
drum to turn a pointer needle. The assembly
provides

frictionless

movement

with

resistant pressure provided by the springs.

Sigma Mechanical Comparator

Optical Comparators
These devices use a plunger to rotate a

mirror. A light beam is reflected off that mirror,

and simply by the virtue of distance, the small
rotation of the mirror can be converted to a
significant translation with little friction.

IAS 2013
For a machined surface, show macroirregularities. What are their causes?
[ 5 Marks]

IES-2012
In connection with surface texture define
(a) waviness
(b) flaws, and
(c) lay.
List three defects found on surfaces.
[2 marks]

Waviness: refers to those surface irregularities

that have a greater spacing than that of

roughness width.
Determined by the height of the waviness and
its width.
The greater the width, the smoother is the
surface and thus is more desirable.
Lay direction: is the direction of the
predominant surface pattern produced on the
workpiece by the tool marks.
Flaw: are surface irregularities that are present
which are random and therefore will not be
considered.

IFS 2011
Define

the

terms

roughness

height,

waviness width and lay in connection

with surface irregularities.
[4 marks]

Roughness height: is the parameter with

which generally the surface finish is indicated.

It is specified either as arithmetic average
value or the root mean square value.
Roughness width: is the distance parallel to
the nominal part surface within which the
peaks and valleys, which constitutes the
predominant pattern of the roughness.
Roughness width cut-off: is the maximum
width of the surface that is included in the
calculation of the roughness height.

IES 2010
In surface roughness, discuss with a

figure Root Mean Square method.

Root mean square value of the deviation in

place of the arithmetic average , This in

expression form is

RRMS

1
N

2
i

Fig. Surface roughness

IAS 2013
Q. What are various measures of surface
finish? Explain any three of them.
[ 5 Marks]

Evaluation of Surface Roughness

1. Centre line average (CLA) or arithmetic mean

deviation denoted as Ra.

2. Root mean square value (Rg) : rms value
3. Maximum peak to valley roughness (hmax)
4. The average of the five highest peak and five

deepst valleys in the sample.

5. The average or leveling depth of the profile.

Arithmetical Average:
Measured for a specified area and the figures
are added together and the total is then
divided by the number of measurements taken
to obtain the mean or arithmetical average
(AA).
It is also sometimes called the centre line
average or CLA value. This in equation form is
given by 1 L
1

Ra

L
0

y ( x) dx

The other parameter that is used sometimes

is the root mean square value of the deviation

in place of the arithmetic average , This in
expression form is

RRMS

1
N

2
i

Fig. Surface roughness

Peak to valley surface roughness

(h) = Rp + Rv

IAS 2012
Explain how flatness of a surface is
measured with an optical flat.
[12 Marks]

IES 2012 Conventional

Write in short about optical flat. Two fringe
patterns

are

supplied

for

two

completely

different surfaces using optical flat, name the

types of surfaces, and draw if required

Fig. Fringe patterns for two completely different

types
of surfaces.

When the fringes are perfectly straight and

same fringe width for dark and bright band we

conclude that the surface is perfectly flat.
For convex surface the fringes curve around the
point of contact.
For concave surface the fringes curve away
from the point of contact.

The distance of air gap between two successive fringes is given by

2
n
th
Distance of air gap of interference fringe of n order is
2

IFS 2011
Laser light has unique advantages for
inspection. What are they?
[4 marks]

LASER- Light amplification by stimulated

emission of radiation.
Light for measurement applications are lowpower gas lasers such as helium-neon, which
emits light in the visible range.
Advantage
1. Highly monochromatic, which means the light
has a single wave length
2. Highly collimated, which means the light rays
are parallel. These properties have motivated
a growing list of laser applications in
measurement and inspection. (Laser scanning
system, laser triangulation etc)

IES 2010 Conventional

Discuss a Go gauge.

Taylors Principle
State and explain Taylors Principle of limit
gauging.
This principle states that the GO gauge should

always be so designed that it will cover the

maximum metal condition (MMC) of as many
dimensions as possible in the same limit gauges,
whereas a NOT GO gauges to cover the minimum
metal condition of one dimension only.