Ch. 5.

Secondary Growth in Plants

Madagascar is a large island

off the coast of Africa. It is
home to some of the worlds
most unusual trees. One of
the unusual trees is the giant
baobab (Adansonia
grandidieri). Madagascar is
home to eight baobab species
six of which are unique to
Madagascar. In terms of
species diversity,
Madagascar is one of
the worlds richest areas,
with approximately 5% of
all living species of
animals and plants. 80%
of those plant species
are unique to the island.

Secondary Growth: An
Overview
Secondary growth is an increase in the girth
of a plant initiated by cell divisions in lateral
meristems. Primary and secondary growth
happen simultaneously but in different parts
of the plant. Stems typically have more
secondary growth that roots.

Lateral meristems, cylinders of dividing

cells, produce secondary vascular and
secondary dermal tissue

Secondary growth is a
growth in diameter.
The vascular cambium
produces vascular
tissues, which are called
secondary xylem and
secondary phloem.
The vascular cambium
forms from cells in the
cortex and procambrium.
The cork cambium, also
called phellogen,
produces new dermal
tissue that eventually
replaces the epidermis.

Bonsai Trees
Bonsai is the art of growing a tree in a
confined space to simulate the
environmental conditions that give trees
some of their most stunning and beautiful
effects. The goal is to use a small plant to
suggest a larger natural scene. When
cared for properly these trees can live as

long as 500 years. The art of

growing bonsai trees originated in
China as far back as 200 B.C.
Some bonsais have reproductive
structures such as cones, flowers,
and fruit. Bonsai trees can be
shaped in a wide variety of styles
designed to simulate nature.

The vascular cambium produces

secondary xylem (wood) and
secondary phloem

The vascular cambium of roots

first forms as separate sections
that grow together into an
irregular shape.
In stems a regular cylinder of
vascular cambium forms
between the xylem and phloem
and in the cortex between
vascular bundles.
In a year or so the vascular
cambium results in the
formation of a cylinder through
different rates of cell division.
Secondary xylem expands the
plants capacity to carry water
and minerals up from the roots
and adds structural support.
Secondary phloem increases
food transport from the leaves.

Each year the vascular

cambium adds secondary
xylem to the inside and
secondary phloem to the
outside of the vascular
cambium.
Secondary xylem is what we
commonly call wood.
Secondary xylem consists or
mostly dead cells.
Secondary growth enhances
the two basic functions of
vascular tissue: support and
conduction.
The addition of secondary
xylem and phloem increases
the plants capacity to conduct
water and nutrients, with the
basic shapes of the conducting
cells remaining the same.
Without the additional lignin
support produced in secondary
growth the tree could not grow
very tall, withstand harsh wind,
or penetrate tough soil.

The cork cambium produces secondary

dermal tissue
Cork, also called phellem,
forms the outside of the cork
cambium and consists of dead
cells when mature.
Phelloderm is a thin layer of
living parenchyma cells that
forms to the inside of each of
the many cork cambia.
The cork cambium does not
increase in diameter. Rather, a
new cork cambium forms every
few years.
In the stem the cork cambium
arises from parenchyma cells
in the outermost layer of the
cortex.
In a root, the initial cork
cambium forms after changes
in the endodermis and
pericycle.

Bark consists of all the tissues external

to the vascular cambium
Bark consists of all the
tissues outside the vascular
cambium.
The inner bark consists of the
living secondary phloem.
The outer bark consists of
dead tissue and all the layers
of periderm outside of the
most recent cork cambium.
When the entire bark is
removed in a ring around the
tree a process called
girdling the transport in
the phloem is disrupted
thereby killing the tree.

Growth Patterns in
Wood and Bark
Why is bark uneven? Why are trees
sometimes hollow? How do dark and
light regions form in wood?

The vascular cambium produces

secondary xylem, secondary phloem,
and ray parenchyma, as well as more
vascular cambium
Two types of meristematic
cells form the vascular
cambium.
Fusiform initials arise
within the vascular
bundles and produce new
vascular tissue.
Ray initials usually arise
between the vascular
bundles and are often
cubical cells that serve as
storage cells and some
sideways transport.

Sapwood conducts water and minerals,

but heartwood does not
The older non-conducting
rings of xylem form the center
of the trunk or root and are
called heartwood
The outer rings called
sapwood transport the xylem
sap
Heartwood can endanger a
tree by providing a pathway
for invading fungi
After cavitation, the entry of
the fungi into adjacent live
cells is often prevented by the
production of tyloses that
partially or completely plug
the xylem cells

Growth rings in wood reflect the history

of the secondary growth of the tree
Growth rings are visible because of the distinction
between large cells of early wood in the spring and small
cells of late wood in the fall.
The width of a growth ring can reveal something about
the season that produced it.
Variation in ring width is due to environmental factors
such as water, temperature, or nutrients.

Dendrochronology is the science of

tree ring dating and climate
interpretation
Dendrochronology has
been used to identify
what is perhaps the
oldest living thing, a
bristlecone pine.
This method of dating can
be used to date ruins of
ancient civilizations.
Dendrochronology has
been used to date as far
back as 9,000 years.

Growth patterns in reaction wood

counteract leaning
The growth patterns of rings
can sometimes be irregular
as a result of a trees
response to forces such as
wind and gravity.
In trunks and branches that
are leaning, reaction wood
may develop as an apparent
counterbalance.
In dicots the reaction wood
forms at the top of the
leaning branch and is called
tension wood because it
pulls the branch toward the
vertical position.

The cork cambium is reformed as the

stems and root enlarge
As the vascular cambium widens the stem or
root the outermost layers of cortex and
epidermis stretch and crack.
The cork cambium forms a new layer of cells
inside the old one to protect the tree.
These cells are coated and contain a fatty
substance called suberin which makes them
water proof.
After these cork cells die they still function as
armor around the vascular tissues.

Tree clues to a Colonial Mystery

The very first attempts to colonize the
Americas did not go very well. The
conditions were tough. The very first
colony, Roanoke, failed and all the people
vanished. The second colony, Jamestown nearly failed because
of harsh conditions. In 1998 scientist reported that the reason
that conditions for the colonists were so bad was due to extreme
drought in the area that struck both of the first American
colonies. Scientists determined this using tree rings that showed
very thin rings in the time of
these first colonies.

Lenticels are pathways in the bark for

gas exchange
Lenticels are small
openings in the outer bark
where cork layers are
thin, and there is enough
space between cells to
allow gas exchange.
New lenticels line up with
old ones as new cork
cambium arises.
These lenticels are easily
identified on trees with
smooth bark and appear
as short streaks, slits or
raised dots.

Commercial Uses of
Wood and Bark

Wood is used mainly for fuel, paper

products, and construction
Paper and fuel are the
two main uses of wood.
The average person uses
33 pounds of paper
annually while the
average American uses
732 pounds of paper
annually.
Kenaf is a promisingnonwoody alternative to
paper production from
trees.

Wood structure can be studied from

three cutting planes
Wood in the lumberyard has different
appearances depending on how it is Veneers are peels off large logs
which is angled in slightly so the
cut.
cut does not stop.
A transverse cut gives a circular
cross section.
A radial cut is longitudinal and
passes through the center of the
stem. This wood is the most
expensive.
A tangential cut is also longitudinal
but crosses the radius at a right
angle.
In plain sawed lumber the growth
rings are variable.
In a quarter sawed board the growth
rings appear as parallel lines running
the length of the board.

Wood can vary in properties such as

hardness and grain

The wood of dicot trees is

commonly called hardwood
because it usually contains
many fibers making it difficult
to nail, saw, or damage.
The wood of most conifers is
called softwood because it
contains fewer fibers and no
vessels making it softer.
The actual hardness of wood
relates to its density the
amount matter per unit
volume.
Specific gravity is ratio of a
woods weight to the weight of
an equal volume of liquid
water.

 Several factors determine which wood is

good for a specific task
Durability the extent to which wood is
resistant to breakdown and decay.
Grain the overall alignment of the
conducting cells of xylem.
Texture the sizes of the cells in the xylem
and phloem and to the sizes of growth rings
Water content the percentage of water by
weight.
Knots can also affect the quality and
appearance of wood.

Latex, resin, and maple syrup are some

products from wood fluids

Many flowering plants produce

various forms of latex that are
extremely useful to humans.
Resin is found in nonflowering
seed plants and is used by the
tree to seal wounds.
Resin contains a semi fluid
component called turpentine
Fossilized resin is called
amber.
Ancient insects and bacteria
often became trapped in the
resin and were fossilized.
Another product from wood
fluids is maple syrup that
comes from tapping into the
outer xylem of maple trees in
early spring.

Different Roads to producing Rubber

The elastic latex originally used to make rubber came from
the rubber tree native to Central and South America. The
Mayans used latex to make rubber balls and binding
materials. Latex is collected from the rubber tree by tappers
who gash the bark of the tree in the cool morning and collect
the latex. During World War II the Japanese cut off the
supply of natural rubber,
so chemists came up
with a method for
making artificial rubber
using petroleum.
Scientists have begun to
study the ability of other
plants to produce latex
to reduce the high cost
of shipping and
production.

Commercial cork comes from the thick

outer bark of some trees
The cork cells of the outer
bark provide flexbility and
water tightness for the
trunk.
The most important
source of bark is the cork
oak of cork cells.
Recently, because of
cost, some wineries have
replaced natural corks
with those made of
synthetic plastic.

Trees are a renewable but limited

natural resource
Before humans existed, forests covered much more of
the Earths surface than today.
Throughout human history wood has been used for
heating, cooking, and construction.
Deforestation is the process of clearing forests.
Deforestation reduces the quantity of the trees and the
diversity of trees.
At current rates of deforestation all tropical and
temperate rain forestsexcept those in national parks-will have disappeared by 2030.
In the continental U.S. 98% of forests have been logged
at least once.

Sustainable use of wood resources

In recent years, sustainable forestry, sometimes called new
forestry, has sought to develop methods whereby timber can be
extracted from forests while biodiversity and long term
ecosystem health are maintained. New forestry implemented
new management strategies that ensure the continued
production of harvestable trees. The problem with farming of
any kind is that it depletes
the nutrients in the soil
each year. One thing that
can be done to counter
this is to remove the bark
and leaves onsite. This
leaves behind many of
the valuable nutrients
needed for the next crop
of trees.