Semiconduc

tor Physics
Deepak Kumar

Department of Appli
Sciences,
Physics Group,
Chandigarh
University.
deepaksharma.cu@gmail.com

Outline of the presentation

Energy Bands
Semiconductors intrinsic & extrinsic
P-n junction diode & Characteristics
Hall effect and Hall Voltage
Light Emitting Diode
Tunnel Diode
Zener Diode

SEMICONDUCTORS
Semiconductors are the materials whose electrical conductivities
are higher than those of insulators but lower that those of
conductors.
Silicon, Germanium, Gallium Arsenide, Zinc oxide and cadmium
sulphide are some commonly used semiconductors.
Semiconductors have negative temperature coefficients
resistance, i.e. as temperature increases, resistivity deceases.

of

What is a
Semiconductor?
Low resistivity => conductor
High resistivity => insulator
Intermediate resistivity =>
semiconductor
conductivity lies between that of conductors
and insulators
generally crystalline in structure for IC devices
In recent years, however, non-crystalline
semiconductors have become commercially very
important

Polycrystalline amorphous cry

Semiconductor
Materials

Galliu
m
(Ga)

Phosphor
us
(P)

Semiconductors are more like insulators in their pure form but have
smaller atomic band gaps.

Energy Bands
The highest energy band completely filled with electrons (at T = 0 K) is called
the Valence Band.
The next highest band above valence band (empty or partly filled) is called the
Conduction Band.

The energy difference between the bottom of the Conduction

and the top of the Valence bands is called the Band Gap.

Energy Bands in Solids

In solid materials, electron energy levels form bands of
allowed energies, separated by forbidden bands.
Classification of solids into three types, according to their band
structure:
Insulators: Forbidden gap between valence band and
conduction band is very wide, about 3 to 6 eV.
Semiconductors: Forbidden gap is small - about 0.1 to 1 eV.
Conductors: Forbidden gap is very small, ~ 0 eV and in some
cases, conduction band overlaps with valence band.

Band structure and conductivity

Energy Bands in Insulators & Conductors

Energy Bands in Semiconductors

Forbidden band

small
for
semiconductors.

Less energy required

for electron to move
from
valence
to
conduction band.

A vacancy (hole) is
created
when
an
electron
leaves
the
valence band.

INTRINSIC SEMICONDUCTOR

An intrinsic semiconductor (undoped semiconductor or i-type

semiconductor) is a pure semiconductor without any
significant dopant species present.

At zero Kelvin all of the four valence electrons of each atom in

the silicon crystal (for example) form part of the covalent bond
with the four neighboring atoms.

INTRINSIC SEMICONDUCTOR

The valence band is completely filled

and the conduction band is completely
empty. So the semiconductor behaves as
a perfect insulator because there are no
conducting electrons present.

At temperatures above zero Kelvin some

of the valence electrons are able to get

free from their bonds to become free
conduction electrons.

The vacancy that is left behind is

referred to as a hole. This hole is treated
as a positive carrier of charge.

Doping
Doping is the incorporation of substitutional impurities into a
semiconductor according to our requirements.
In other words, impurities are introduced in a controlled manner.
Semiconductors can be easily doped.
Impurities change the conductivity of the material so that it
become suitable for fabricating into an electronic device.

EXTRINSIC SEMICONDUCTORS
Electrical Properties of Semiconductors can be altered
drastically by adding minute amounts of suitable impurities
to the pure crystals.
There are basically two types of impurities: donor impurities
and acceptor impurities.
Donor impurities are made up of atoms which have five
valence electrons (arsenic for example).
Acceptor impurities are made up of atoms which have three
valence electrons (gallium for example).

Donors
Consider a Si-semiconducting crystal,
When a Group V atom replaces a Si atom, it will use four of its electrons to
form the covalent bonding

What happens with the remaining electron.?

Donors
The remaining electron will not be very tightly bound and can be
easily ionized at T > 0K.
Ionized electron is free to conduct.
In terms of the band structure, this electron is now in the conduction
band.
Such Group V impurities are called Donors, since they donate
electrons into the Conduction Band.

Semiconductors
semiconductors.

doped

by

donors

are

called

n-type

P-TYPE EXTRINSIC SEMICONDUCTOR

Gallium has 3 valence
electrons, however, there are 4
covalent bonds to fill. The 4th
bond therefore remains vacant
producing a hole.
holes - majority carriers and
electrons - minority carriers.

N-TYPE EXTRINSIC SEMICONDUCTOR

Arsenic has 5 valence
electrons, however, only 4 of
them form part of covalent
bonds. The 5th electron is then
free to take part in
conduction.
electrons - majority carriers,
holes - minority carriers.

P-N JUNCTION DIODE

On its own a p-type or n-type semiconductor is not very useful.
However when combined, very useful devices can be made.
The p-n junction can be formed by allowing a p-type material to
diffuse into an n-type region at high temperatures.

Free electrons on the n-side and free holes on the p-side can
initially diffuse across the junction. Uncovered charges are left in
the neighborhood of the junction.
This region is depleted of mobile carriers and is called the
DEPLETION REGION (thickness 0.5 1.0 m).

Further diffusion of electrons and holes stop due to the barrier p.d across the
junction reaching some critical value.
The barrier p.d (or the contact potential) depends on the type of
semiconductor, temperature and doping densities.
At room temperature, typical values of barrier p.d. are:
Ge ~ 0.2 0.4 V
Si ~ 0.6 0.8 V

FORWARD BIASED P-N JUNCTION

When an external voltage is applied to the P-N junction making
the P-side positive with respect to the N-side, the diode is said
to be forward biased (F.B).
The barrier p.d. is decreased by the external applied voltage.
The depletion band narrows which urges majority carriers to
flow across the junction.

FORWARD BIAS P-N JUNCTION

REVERSE BIASED P-N JUNCTION

When an external voltage is applied to the PN junction making
the P-side negative with respect to the N-side, the diode is said
to be Reverse Biased (R.B.).
The barrier p.d. increases. The depletion band widens
preventing the movement of majority carriers across the
junction.

REVERSE BIAS P-N JUNCTION

Characteristics of a Diode

Characteristics of a Diode

When the diode is F.B., the current increases exponentially

with voltage except for a small range close to the origin.

When the diode is R.B., the reverse current is constant and

independent of the applied reverse bias.

Threshold voltage: For a F.B. diode, it is the voltage when the

current increases appreciably from zero.
It is roughly equal to the barrier p.d.:
For Ge, V ~ 0.3 V (at room temp.)
For Si, V ~ 0.7 V (at room temp.)

Hall Effect
The Hall effect is the production of a
voltage difference (the Hall voltage)
across a current carrying conductor (in
presence of magnetic field), perpendicular
to both current and the magnetic field.

Discovery
The Hall effect was discovered in
1879 by Edwin Herbert Hall while
working on his doctoral degree at the
Johns Hopkins University in
Baltimore, Maryland, USA.

Theory
A static magnetic field has no effect on a
charged particle unless it is moving.
When charges flow, a mutually
perpendicular force (Lorentz force) is induced
on the charge.
Now electrons and holes are separated by
opposite force.

Theory
This produces a electric field which
depends upon cross product of
magnetic intensity [H] and current
density [J]
Eh=R(JxH)
R is called Hall Coefficient
Consider a Semiconductor bar along
X-axis, Magnetic field along Z-axis.
Thus Eh will be along Y-axis.

Theory
Thus R=Vh/aJH=Vhb/IH
Vh is Hall Voltage and I is Jab

Applications
Hall effect devices produce a very low
signal level and thus require
amplification. In early 20th century
vacuum tube amplifiers were
expensive and unreliable. But with the
development of the low cost
integrated circuit the Hall effect
sensor became suitable for mass
application.

Current Sensor
When electrons flow through a
conductor, a magnetic field is
produced.
Thus, it is possible to create a
non-contacting current sensor.
This has several advantages:
1.No additional resistance (a
shunt) need be inserted in
the primary circuit.
2.Also, the voltage present
on the line to be sensed is
not transmitted to the
sensor, which enhances the
safety of measuring
equipment.

Hall effect current sensor with

internal integrated circuit
amplifier.

Electric Motor Control

Some types of brushless DC

electric motors use Hall
effect sensors to detect the
position of the rotor and feed
that information to the
motor controller. This allows
for more precise motor
control.

Magnetometer
Smart phones like iPhone 3GS
are equipped with magnetic
compass.
These compass measure
Earths magnetic field using 3axis magnetometer.
These magnetometer are
sensors based on Hall Effect.
These sensors produce a
voltage proportional to the
applied magnetic field and
also sense polarity.