Guidelines for Efficient

Writing
Ioana Mohor-Ivan

Guidelines for efficient writing

Present the reader with ideas worth considering;
Organise and develop the main point logically and
emphatically;
Be precise in lexical choice, and highly specific in
the supporting material;
Present all the points clearly, with sentence and
paragraph elements arranged in a unified, coherent
fashion;
Respect the conventions of grammar, spelling and
punctuation.

Some additional guidelines

The first sentence should be reasonably short (to
ease the readers into the material);
Too many short/long sentences are likely to tire
readers;
Sentences which are too long or complex should be
avoided;
It is often appropriate to follow a sentence
containing a lot of information with a short one
that, while not duplicating the material, summarises
or clarifies it.

Which of the following punctuation

marks are most adequate as a
separating device?

It was a fine
It was a fine
It was a fine
It was a fine
It was a fine

day, the sun was shining.

day. The sun was shining.
day the sun was shining.
day; the sun was shining.
day: the sun was shining.

HIERARCHY OF
PUNCTUATION
COMMA: brief, hardly perceptible pause;
if used with a conjunction (and, but, for),
it acquires the same weight as a semicolon.
DASH: equivalent to a strong comma; it is
useful towards the end of a clause or
sentence when the writer wishes to
stress an additional and important point.

 BRACKETS/A PAIR OF DASHES: used

to isolate a thought or piece of
information that is worth including, but
is secondary to the main thrust of the
material. The pair of dashes is slightly
the weightier, but essentially they do
the same work.
SEMI-COLON: its weight is halfway
between the comma and the full stop. It
should be used to separate two clauses
whose subject-matter is closely related.

 COLON: whereas the semi-colon

denotes a pause between two related
clauses, the colon separates two that
are directly interlock (i.e. each is to an
extent dependent on the other for full
sense or impact.)
FULL STOP: denotes a major pause,
therefore it should be used as sparingly
as possible (a profusion of full stops
prohibits flow.)
THE QUESTION AND EXCLAMATION
MARKS: have the same weight as a full
stop, but are also specific signals.

There was no letter that day he

was pleased his wife was
worried.

 There was no letter that day. He

was pleased, his wife worried.
There was no letter. That day he
was pleased; his wife worried.
There was no letter that day: he
was pleased his wife worried.

Suggestions for designing

paragraphs
Each side of the paper (assuming A4 size) should
usually contain 2 or 3 paragraphs;
Except for occasions when you wish to stress or
highlight something, each paragraphs should contain at
least 3 sentences;
A good paragraph usually resembles a miniature essay:
it should be clearly set up, properly developed,
satisfyingly rounded off.
First and last paragraphs should be fairly short.
A paragraph should have unity and a nucleus (a
sentence to which all other material can be seen to
gravitate.

What is redundant in the

following examples?
This new innovation
At this moment in
time
Whys and
wherefores
Unnecessary
fripperies
Quite unique
Quite dead

Throughout the whole chapter

The final incident with which the
chapter ends
These factors combined together
to produce
It was no more than a mere
passing thought
But after a while, however, he
realised
He can do no more than just follow
blindly

In formal writing try to

avoid:
Useless or damaging qualifiers:

We thought this story incredible very

incredible
convincing.
The Winslow Boy, that fantastic update
fantastic
of the problem play,
Defoe was a brilliant satirist
brilliant
Macbeth is definitely a tragic hero
definitely
No way is Macbeth not a tragic
no way/in no way
hero
over the top Shakespeare goes way over the top here
A most sincere poem like
sincere

 Unnecessary complexity:
The poet succeeds in creating an arresting
picture
Mozart manages to convince us
Einstein is trying to put over the point that

. embodies a representation of
the way this is brought to realisation is
promotes a general level of satisfaction

 Leaden lead-ins:

It is interesting to note that

It may perhaps be said that
It is worthy of note that
We can safely say that
From certain points of view

 Redundant qualifiers:

Quite evil
Rather tragic
Somewhat wicked
Very true
Completely and utterly defeated
Extremely empty

 Account for: explain the cause of

Analyse: separate down into component parts and show how they
interrelate with each other
Comment on: make critical or explanatory notes/observations
Compare: point out the differences and similarities
Contrast: point out differences only and present results in orderly
fashion
Describe: write down the information in the correct order
Discuss: present arguments for and against the topic
Evaluate: estimate the value of, looking at positive and negative
attributes
Explain: give reasons; say why rather than just define
Identify: select features according to the question
List: item-by-item consideration of the topic
Outline: give the main features or general features of a subject
Review: make a survey, examining it critically
Summarize: state the main features of an argument

4 main types on nonfiction prose:

Narration: recounts an event or series
of events;
Description: portrays an person, place
or object;
Exposition: explains and clarifies;
Argumentation: convinces through a
sequence of reasoning.

Additional guidelines in using

narration
The emphasis in any narration is on what happened: A, then B, and
then C, etc. Events may be arranged in a strict time sequence, or
their chronology may be rearranged to emphasise a special
episode.
The 1st-person narration helps form an intimate, personal bond
between the writer and the audience (e.g. presenting
autobiographical material, or describing situations in which the
writer was a participant or observer.)
The 3rd-person narration is effective in highly objective writing,
where the emphasis is on the event itself rather than on its
interpretation (e.g. historical accounts, case-studies, reports).
Within a narrative paragraph the topic sentence may be
presented at either its beginning or its end. If placed at the end,
it should summarise and re-emphasise the idea or feeling the
writer wants to convey. It may be omitted if enough supporting
evidence is provided to support the implied topic.

Additional guidelines in using

description
Any description should have a broader purpose as
revealed in the dominant impression the writer wants
to share with his/her audience.
The dominant impression is conveyed by relying on
details that convey sense impressions (details of sight,
sound, taste, touch, smell). Any description may convey
several sense impressions, but one should be dominant.
An effective description is often presented from a
particular vantage point. Developing detail from a
particular vantage point is known as spatial order.
Spatial development is an additional tool for achieving
emphasis that will serve the purpose of the description.

Forms of exposition
Definition: it presents the meaning of a term; it is used to
show the specific characteristics that give something its
identity, setting it apart from similar things.
Exemplification: it explains or clarifies by providing
illustrations, examples and supporting details
Comparison/contrast: it identifies similarities and
differences
Analogy: it clarifies something unfamiliar by comparing it to
something familiar or easily understood.
Classification: it is used to arrange or group a complex set
of ideas or items that share some common feature.
Process analysis: it concentrates on how something is done;
it enumerates the major steps involved and provides proper
warnings if a particular order of steps is involved.
Causal analysis: it reveals and discusses the reason for an
occurrence and the consequences of it.

Argumentation
It is the setting forth of reasons along with the conclusion
drawn from them.
An argumentative essay usually employs inductive reasoning
(i.e. the presentation of observations, experience, facts,
statistics that make up the evidence for drawing a likely
conclusion.)
In the writing process one moves backward: stating first
the conclusion (What I believe,) and then developing on its
basis (Why I believe this.)
It resorts to:

Generalisation
Authority
Positive support
Specific evidence
Cause and effect
Alternatives
Objectivity

Logical fallacies
a)
b)
c)
d)
e)
f)
g)
h)
i)

Either\or (black and

white thinking)
Circular reasoning
Assuming the
conclusion
Begging the question
Hasty generalisation
Argument from
ignorance (without
positive support)
Popular (bandwaggon)
appeal.
False cause
Sweeping
generalisation

Penal reform is necessary because of

prison corruption, which shows the need
for prison reform.
If teachers cannot fix the problems in
schools they should stay out of the
debate altogether.
Why are men more aggressive than
women?
This action is wrong because it is immoral.
Art courses should be required in
secondary schools because there is no
reason that they should not be.
Never trust anyone over thirty.
Thirty Xerox photocopiers gave clear
reproductions when tested. This thirtyfirst one, therefore, will make clear
reproductions.
As more women have joined the work
force, juvenile crime has increased. If
mothers would stay home where they
belong, the crime rate would drop.
Rome is a very good series because so
many people are watching it.

Introductions
Purposes:

Provide an interesting presentation of the thesis

statement
Stimulate the readers interest in the topic
Indicate clearly what the topic is so that the
reader may understand the point the paper is
pursuing and how it will be approached.

Possible openings:

A broad statement
The thesis statement
A statistics or fact
A quotation
An anecdote
A scene-setter

Conclusions
Purposes:
offer the audience a way of viewing the
paper as a whole;
Ease the reader out of the paper;
Enable the writer offer final
affirmation of the thesis.

 The most commonly employed means of

concluding are:
the
the
the
the
the

summary,
prediction,
question,
recommendation (s),
quotation.

Model for the Analysis of

Creative Works

Introduction

Body

Conclusion

Identify the work

Give a brief summary in one sentence
Provide background information that related to the thesis
Offer biographical facts about the author that relate to the specific issues
Use quotations and paraphrases of authorities that establish the scholarly
traditions
Write a thesis sentence that establishes your particular views of the
literary work or any other art form
Provide an analysis divided according to such elements as imagery, theme,
character development, structure, symbolism, narration, language, etc.
Keep a fundamental focus on the author of the work, not just the elements
of analysis as explained in the body
Offer a conclusion that explores the contributions of the writer in concord
with your thesis sentence

Model for Argument and

Persuasion Papers

Introduction

Body

Conclusion

In one sentence establish the problem or controversial issue that your paper
will examine
Summarize the issues
Define key terminology
Make concessions on some points of the argument
Use quotations and paraphrases of sources to build the controversial nature
of the subject
Provide background to establish a past/present relationship
Write a thesis to establish your position
Argue in defence on one side
Analyse the issues, both pro and con
Give evidence from the sources, including quotations as appropriate
Expand your thesis into a conclusion that makes clear your position which
should be one that grows logically from your analysis and discussion of the
issues

Model for a Comparative

Study

Introduction
Establish A
Establish B
Briefly compare the two
Introduce the central issue
Cite source materials on the subjects
Present your thesis
Body (choose one)
Examine A / Compare A and B / Issue 1: Discuss A and B
Examine B / Contrast A and B / Issue 2: Discuss A and B
Compare and contrast A and B / Discuss the central issues / Issue
3: Discuss A and B
Conclusion
Discuss the significant issues
Write a conclusion that ranks one over the other, or
Write a conclusion that rates the respective wisdom of each side

Content and structural

coherence
Section of paper: theme
generation of paragraphs

Section of paper: topic

sentences

1. Introduction (generalspecic)

1. Introduction: topic sentence of this

paragraph captures theme of section.

Thematic (content) coherence

2. Theme taken from paragraph 1.

3. Theme taken from paragraph 2.
4. Theme generated because of development
of paragraph 3.

Structural coherence

2, 3, 4 & 5. Topic sentence captures theme of

the paragraph. Connectors are used to link
with previous paragraph.

5. Theme generated because of conclusion of

paragraph 4.

6. Topic sentence captures the conclusion.

6. Theme is the conclusion drawn at the end of

the argument put forward in this section.

All the topic sentences should relate

(conceptually) to the main topic.

All the themes are related to the main topic as

well as the section topic.

Topic sentences are constructed to reect a

summarised version of the theme of the
paragraph.

Themes are generated because of the

knowledge (and insight) of the writer.

Linking words and phrases

Function

Transitional words and phrases

To add

In addition; furthermore; moreover; and; again; equally important; similarly

To prove

Because; for; since; for the same reason

To compare and
contrast

Yet; while; whereas; in contrast; however; on the one hand on the other hand; conversely; on the
contrary; by comparison

To show exception

Yet; still; nevertheless; in spite of; despite; of course

To indicate time

Immediately; thereafter; soon; nally; then

To repeat

In brief; as I have noted

To emphasise

Obviously; denitely; extremely; in fact; indeed; in any case; positively; naturally; surprisingly;
undeniably; unquestioningly; without reservation

To show sequence

First; rstly; secondly (etc.); and so forth; next; then; following this; at this time; at this point; after;
before; previously; consequently; simultaneously

To give example

For instance; for example; in another case; take the case of; to demonstrate; to illustrate; as an
example

To summarise or
conclude

In brief; on the whole; summing up; to conclude; in conclusion; as I have shown; hence; therefore; as
a result; on the whole; consequently

To show cause-andeffect relationships

Because; since; therefore; as a result; consequently; hence; thus; because of; due to; as a result of

To show adversative
position

Although; even though; despite the fact that; notwithstanding the fact that; nevertheless; in spite of

To clarify

In other words; that is

To intensify

On the contrary; as a matter of fact; in fact

2. Writing from
sources:
quotation, paraphrase, summary,
prcis and referencing

Quotations
Used for:
support (appeal to authority);
to preserve vivid or technical language;
to analyse or comment on the
quotation;
to distance oneself from the quotation

Direct/Indirect Quotations
Samuel Butler said: I do not mind
lying, but I hate inaccuracy.
Samuel Butler declared that I do not
mind lying, but I hate inaccuracy.
I do not mind lying, said Samuel
Butler, but I hate inaccuracy.
Samuel Butler declared that he did not
mind lying, but he hated inaccuracy.

Punctuation Guidelines
Periods and commas are placed inside the
quotation:
Hemingway believed that what is moral is what you
feel good after and what is immoral is what you feel
bad after.

Semicolons, colons and dashes are placed

outside the quotation:
Hemingway believed that what is moral is what you
feel good after and what is immoral is what you feel
bad after; this also applies to Harry Morgan in To Have
and Have Not.

 Question marks and exclamation points may be

placed either inside (if the quotation is itself a
question or exclamation) or outside the quotation
(if they belong to the framework sentence):
Freuds writings occasionally reveal a remarkable lack of insight:
The great question that has never been answered, and which I have not
been able to answer despite my thirty years of research into the
feminine soul, is: What does a woman want?
Freud was demonstrating remarkably little insight when he wrote,
What does a woman want? citing his thirty years of research into the
feminine soul!
What did Freud mean when he asked, What does a woman want?

Quoting inside quotations

I draw the line at forever. (Muriel
Spark)
Eternally enquiring and curious about
people and places, I draw the line at
forever. (Victoria Glendinning)
In her recent profile, Victoria
Glendinning emphasises Muriel Sparks
search for variety: Eternally enquiring
and curious about people and places, I
draw the line at forever.

Tailoring quotations
Changing capital and small letters:
Frost wrote that good fences make
good neighbours.
Frost wrote, Good fences make good
neighbours.

Using ellipses:
It is not true that suffering ennobles the
character; happiness does that sometimes, but
suffering, for most part, makes me petty and
vindictive. (W. S. Maugham)
Maugham does not believe that suffering
ennobles the character; . . . Suffering, for the
most part, makes men petty and vindictive.
Maugham does not believe that suffering
ennobles the character; happiness does that
sometimes . . . .

 Using brackets:

To
To
To
To
To

explain a vague word

replace a confusing phrase
suggest an antecedent
correct an error in a quotation
adjust a quotation to fit your own writing

A famous philosopher once argued that what he

[man] lives for is thrills and excitement.
One of Heywoods Proverbes [sic] tells us
that . . .

Writing citations
First reference:
John Stuart Mill writes, The opinion which is
attempted to suppress by authority may
possibly be true.
In On Liberty, John Stuart Mill writes . . .

Second reference:
Mill continues to point out that all silencing of
discussion is an assumption of infallibility.
In addition to his warnings about the dangers of
majority rule, which were cited earlier in the
discussion of public opinion, John Stuart Mill

Reporting verbs
Neutral
attitude

Some degree Implied

of uncertainty agreement

Attitude of the
original

points out

alleges

establishes

refutes

argues

speculates

affirms

discards

suggests

postulates

confirms

stresses

indicates

contends

proves

advocates

describes

claims

convinces

proposes

observes

asserts

demonstrates

urges

shows

contradicts

remarks
sustains

challenges

Paraphrase

Literal paraphrase: a word-for-word

substitution, staying close to the
sentence structure of the original text.
Free paraphrase: moves away from the
words and sentence structure of the
original text and presents ideas in the
paraphrasers own style and idiom; it can
summarise repetitious parts of the
original, but it will present ideas in much
the same order.

Read the text below and then decide

which is the best paraphrase, (a) or (b).

Ancient Egypt collapsed in about

2180 BC. Studies conducted of
the mud from the River Nile
showed that at this time the
mountainous regions which feed
the Nile suffered from a
prolonged drought. This would
have had a devastating effect on
the ability of Egyptian society to
feed itself.

a) The sudden ending of Egyptian

civilisation over 4,000 years ago
was probably caused by changes in
the weather in the region to the
south. Without the regular river
flooding there would not have
been enough food.
b) Research into deposits of the
Egyptian Nile indicate that a long
dry period in the mountains at the
rivers source may have led to a
lack of water for irrigation
around 2180BC, which was when
the collapse of Egyptian society
began.

changing vocabulary:
______________________________
changing word-class:
______________________________
changing word-order:
______________________________

Summary

A condensation of ideas or information provided by a

source.
It does not include examples or repetitions.
It is often used as part of a larger essay.
Guidelines for writing a summary:
Find the most important information that tells what the
paragraph or group of paragraphs is about.
Use this information to write a topic sentence.
Find 2 or 3 main ideas and important details that support
your topic sentence and show how they are related.
Keep the ideas and facts in a logical order that expands on
your topic sentence.
Combine several main ideas into a single sentence.
Substitute a general term for lists of items or events.
Do not include unimportant or minor details.
Do not repeat information.

Comparing paraphrase and summary

Paraphrase

Summary

Reports your understanding

to your reader

Reports your understanding

to your reader

Records a relatively short

passage

Records a passage of any

length

Records every point in the

passage

Selects and condenses,

recording only the main ideas

Records these points

consecutively

Changes the order of ideas

when necessary

Includes no interpretation

Explains and interprets

Prcis
A prcis is a highly polished summary,
which often uses direct quotation
from the original source.
It preserves the tone of the original
(doubt, skepticism, optimism, etc.)
It may be used to review a piece of
writing or to write a plot summary.

Compare the following passage from H.

Marcuses Essay on Liberation (1969)
with its summary and prcis.

In the affluent society, capitalism comes into its own. The two
mainsprings of its dynamic the escalation of commodity
production and productive exploitation join and permeate all
dimensions of private and public existence. The available material
and intellectual resources [the potential of liberation] have so
much overgrown the established institutions that only the
systematic increase in waste, destruction and management keeps
the system going. The opposition which escapes suppression by the
police, the courts, the representatives of the people, and the
people themselves, finds expression in the diffused rebellion
among the youth and the intelligentsia, and in the daily struggle of
the persecuted minorities. The armed class struggle is waged
outside: by the wretched of the earth who fight the affluent
monster.

Summary

Prcis

dominates
Capitalism
the affluent society at
all levels. By enlarging
the range and intensity
of its influence, it
neutralises
most
potential rebels, leaving
only the abjectly poor
to fight it.

the
Capitalism,
systematic
consumer
of
all
resources,
dominates
affluent
society at every level.
Fundamentally wasteful
and
tyrannical,
it
enlarges the range and
intensity
of
its
influence,
destroying
or emasculating most
potential
rebels,
leaving
only
the
wretched of the earth
to fight it.

Referencing
Correct and consistent use of a standard referencing convention
is essential in producing a report, thesis or paper.
Referencing a source involves two separate steps:

indicating in the body of a piece of work that some material is not

entirely original, by providing a short 'identifier' for its source (a
reference in the text)
listing, in a separate section of the work, the full details of the
source (in a list of references).
Referencing in the text:

Endnotes or footnotes;
Parenthetical notes;
Explanatory notes;
Umbrella notes.

Listing references:

References
Bibliography
Annotated bibliography

Which are the differences in the

following two referencing
styles?
Hemingways zest for life extended to women also. His wandering
heart seemed only to be exceeded by an even more appreciative eye. 7
Hadley was aware of her husbands flirtations and of his facility with
women.8 Yet, she had no idea that something was going on between
Hemingway and Pauline Pfeiffer, a fashion editor for Vogue magazine.9
She was also unaware that Hemingway delayed his return to Schruns
from a business trip to New York, in February 1926, so that he might
spend some more time with this new and strange girl. 10
_______________________________________________________________________________________

Ernest Hemingway, A Moveable Feast (New York: Scribners, 1964), p. 102.

8 Alice Hunt Sokoloff, Hadley: The First Mrs. Hemingway (New York: Dodd,
Mead, 1973), p. 84.
9 Carlos Baker, Ernest Hemingway: A Life Story (New York: Scribners,
1969), p. 159.
10 Hemingway, op. cit., p. 210. Also Baker, op. cit., p. 165.
7

Hemingways zest for life extended to women also. His

wandering heart seemed only to be exceeded by an even more
appreciative eye (Hemingway 1964: 102). Hadley was aware of
her husbands flirtations and of his facility with women
(Sokoloff 1973: 84). Yet, she had no idea that something was
going on between Hemingway and Pauline Pfeiffer, a fashion
editor for Vogue magazine (Baker 1969: 159). She was also
unaware that Hemingway delayed his return to Schruns from a
business trip to New York, in February 1926, so that he might
spend some more time with this new and strange girl.
(Hemingway 1964: 210; Baker, 1969: 165)
References

1. Baker, Carlos (1969), Ernest Hemingway: A Life Story, New York:

Scribners.
2. Hemingway, Ernest (1964), A Moveable Feast, New York: Scribners.
3. Sokoloff, Alice Hunt (1973), Hadley: The First Mrs. Hemingway,
New York: Dodd, Mead.

Referencing systems
There are a number of different referencing
systems used in academic writing. They
broadly subdivide into:
author-date systems;
footnoting or endnoting systems (one variation: the
Numbered system, i.e. a numbered citation is
inserted into the text whenever a work is referred
to. E.g. The notion of an invisible college has been
explored in the sciences[26].)

Referencing Styles
The Harvard Style: a generic term for any style which contains
author-date references in the text of the document, such as
(Smith 1999). There will also be a list of references at the end of
the document, arranged by authors' names and year of
publication. There is no official manual of the Harvard style: it is
just a generic term for the many styles which follow that format.
The Chicago Manual of Style: the most widely consulted of all
style manuals, it includes provisions for footnote referencing,
numbered reference lists and author-date referencing. Its
footnote referencing system is widely used in the arts and
humanities. Its author/date referencing provisions are also widely
used, and constitute one of the many variants of the Harvard
style.
APA (American Psychological Association): is the standard style
used in Psychology, but it is also widely used in other disciplines,
especially in the Social Sciences. It is one of the many variants of
the Harvard style.
MLA (Modern Language Association of America): is widely used
in the fields of modern literature and linguistics. MLA
referencing uses Harvard-style references in the text of the
document, but without the year of publication. It no longer has
provisions for footnote referencing.

Harvard
Harvard is a generic term for any style which contains authordate references in the text of the document, such as (Smith
1999). There will also be a list of references at the end of the
document, arranged by authors' names and year of publication.
There is no official manual of the Harvard style: it is just a
generic term for the many styles which follow that format. A
reference in the text or reference consists of a name - e.g. one
or more surnames or the name of an organization - and a date,
e.g. "Smith (2005)", "(Wilson & Patel 2007)" or "United Nations
(1948)". (Other systems involve numbers, e.g. "[12]" or "12", or
invented identifiers, e.g. "[Smi2005]".)
The list of references is sorted by name (including initials if
appropriate) and date. (Other systems may sort by the
numerical or alphabetic order of the references in the text.)

References in the text

There are two ways of citing references in the text:

Author prominent

This way gives prominence to the author by using the authors surname
(family name) as part of your sentence with the date and the page number
in parentheses (round brackets).
Direct quote example:

Cowie (1996, p. 91) argues that socialism rejected the liberal ideals of individualism
and competition.

Paraphrase example

Cowie (1996) suggests that unlike capitalism, socialism promotes the good of the
whole before the good of the individual.

Information prominent

The other way of citing references gives prominence to the information,

with all the required referencing details in parentheses at the end of the
citation.
Direct quote example:

It has been argued that socialism rejected the liberal ideals of individualism and
competition (Cowie 1996, p. 91).

Paraphrase example

Unlike capitalism, socialism promotes the good of the whole before the good of the
individual (Cowie 1996).

Page Numbers
Page numbers should be used when you directly quote
material (word for word) from the original publication.
Page numbers should also be provided for indirect
quotes and paraphrasing where the summarised material
appears in specific pages, chapters or sections.
One page referred to: (Wells 1992, p. 4)
Pages that are not in sequence: (Smith 1996, pp. 1, 4 &
6)
Pages that are in sequence: (Jones & Mackay 1998, pp.
2526)
Pages from a web site: (Kelly & McWhirter 1997, p. 1
of 2)

An alternative to "p." or "pp." which is

sometimes found is the use of a colon: cf (Jones
1980, p. 12) / (Jones 1980:12).

Features of the
reference list
For a book, the following elements should be presented in
this order:

surname and initials of author(s)

year of publication
title of book (in italics)
the edition, for example, 4th edn, if not the original publication
publisher
place of publication.
e.g. Shearman, D. & Sauer-Thompson, G. 1997, Green or
Gone, Wakefield Press, Kent Town.
Shearman, D., Sauer-Thompson, G. (1997), Green or Gone,
Kent Town: Wakefield Press.

 For a journal article, the following elements should be

presented in this order:

surname and initials of author(s)

year of publication
title of article in quotation marks
title of journal or periodical in italics and maximal
capitalisation
volume number where applicable
issue number or other identifier where applicable, for
example, Winter
page number(s).

e.g. Stove, R.J. 1999, Xenophobia: the great local

content myth, Institute of Public Affairs Review, vol.
51, no. 1, pp. 1416.
Stove, R.J. (1999), Xenophobia: the great local content
myth, Institute of Public Affairs Review, 51(1), pp. 14
16.

 For an electronic resource, include:

author and date

title
date viewed
URL address or name of database.

e.g. Kennedy, I. 2004, An assessment strategy to

help forestall plagiarism problems, Studies in
Learning, Evaluation, Innovation and Development , vol.
1, no. 1, viewed 7 October 2005,
http://www.sleid.cqu.edu.au/viewissue.php?id=5
Kennedy, I. (2004) An assessment strategy to help
forestall plagiarism problems, Studies in Learning,
Evaluation, Innovation and Development, vol. 1, no. 1,
http://www.sleid.cqu.edu.au/viewissue.php?id=5
[accessed 7 Oct. 2005]

Arranging the reference list

1. The reference list is arranged in alphabetical order according to the authors family name.
(Do not use numbers, letters or bullet points to begin each entry.)
2. Any reference that starts with a number (e.g. 7:30 Report) precedes the alphabetical listing
and is listed numerically.
3. Where there is more than one author of a publication, maintain the order of their names as
they appear on the title page of the publication, even if they are not in alphabetical order on
the title page.
4. If a reference has no author, list it alphabetically according to the sponsoring body, for
example, CSIRO or Education Queensland.
5. If there is no author or sponsoring body, list alphabetically according to the title. The whole
title of the resource must appear, but when listing alphabetically, ignore words such as, The,
A, An at the beginning of the references title.
6. If there are two or more references by the same author, then list them in order of publication
date with the oldest work first.
7. If references by the same author have been published in the same year, then list them
alphabetically according to the title and add the letter a after the first date, and b after the
second date, and so on, (e.g. 1993a, 1993b, 1993c).

Formats for referencing

A complete book.

Jones, P.J. (1980), Introduction to Algorithms, London: Methuen.

Jones, P.J., Smith, R. & Watson, E.P. (eds) (1988), Artificial Intelligence Reconsidered (2nd
edition), New York: Wiley.

A chapter in an edited book.

Hamza, K.A. (1988), "Vision Systems", in Jones, P.J., Smith, R. & Watson, E.P. (eds),
Artificial Intelligence Reconsidered (2nd edition), New York: Wiley, pp. 12-34.

An article in a journal.

Carson, P.R. (1970), "An Approach to Intelligent Planning", Journal of Applied Artificial
Intelligence 38(3), 4-11.

An article from a bound volume of conference proceedings.

Jones, P.J. (1983), "An Attempt to Construct a Knowledge-based Route Planner",

Proceedings of the 8th International Conference on Transport Planning , Budapest: Hungarian
Transport Association, pp. 212-58.

An article you have obtained which was read at conference whose proceedings
seem not to have been published.
Jones, P.J., Richards, M., Zhao, C.H. & Reynolds, P.E. (1988), "The Use of BASIC in AI",
paper read to the annual meeting of the Norwegian Association for Computer Education,
August, Oslo, Norway.

A report produced in 'duplicated' form by an academic or research institution.

Jones, P.J. (1987), "An Algorithm for Distributed Intelligent Route Planning with a BASIC
Implementation", Report #32, Intelligent Transport Laboratories, 38 West Avenue, Forked
Springs, California, USA.

Referencing Online Sources

Some documents appear both in printed form and on the web, in which
case the printed form should treated as primary, although the URL can
usefully be given as additional information in the list of references, for
example by adding a note of the form "[online at URL, accessed
FULL_DATE]".
Where a work is only published on the web, if the author and date of
'publication' can be found then the author's name and the date can be
used as a reference in the text in the normal way. For example:
Coxhead (2007) states that ...
The entry in the list of references: Coxhead, P. 2007, "A Referencing Style
Guide", http://www.cs.bham.ac.uk/~pxc/refs/refs.html [accessed 2 Apr 2007].

With web pages, it is often necessary to use the name of an organization

instead of the name of the author. Note that Wikipedia is not a primary
source (although often a good provider of references to original
sources). Wikipedia articles are mainly useful as overviews; see, for
example:

Wikipedia 2007, "Harvard referencing", online at http://

en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Harvard_referencing [accessed 2 Apr 2007].

If the date of publication cannot be found, one possibility is to use the

date on which the URL was last visited.

Referencing TV
programmes, videos, motion
pictures

For a recording of a TV show, use the date the program was aired:

For a video recording, use the date it was produced. Sometimes, you
will not be able to find the individual producer or directors name
make sure you at least indicate the company or organisation that
produced it.

A Current Affair (video recording) 18 January 2003, Australian Consolidated

Press, Sydney, Director, Megan James.

Babakiueria (video recording) 1991, Australian Broadcasting Commission,

Sydney.

Even if you view a video copy of a film, indicate that it was produced as
a motion picture, and name the producer or director:
The Dead Poets Society (motion picture) 1992, Fox Studios, Los Angeles,
Producer Peter Weir.
Filmography:

Je vous trouve trs beau (2006). Dir. Isabelle Mergault. France.

The Humanities Style

(Chicago Manual)

Book
One author
N:

B:

Two authors
N:

B:

Four or more authors

N:

B:

1. Wendy Doniger, Splitting the Difference (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1999),
65.

Doniger, Wendy. Splitting the Difference. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1999.

6. Guy Cowlishaw and Robin Dunbar, Primate Conservation Biology (Chicago: University of
Chicago Press, 2000), 1047.

Cowlishaw, Guy and Robin Dunbar. Primate Conservation Biology. Chicago: University of
Chicago Press, 2000.

13. Edward O. Laumann et al., The Social Organization of Sexuality: Sexual Practices in the
United States (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1994), 262.
Laumann, Edward O., John H. Gagnon, Robert T. Michael, and Stuart Michaels. The Social
Organization of Sexuality: Sexual Practices in the United States. Chicago: University of
Chicago Press, 1994.

 Editor, translator, or compiler instead of author

N:

4. Richmond Lattimore, trans., The Iliad of Homer (Chicago:

University of Chicago Press, 1951), 9192.

B:

Lattimore, Richmond, trans. The Iliad of Homer. Chicago:

University of Chicago Press, 1951.

Editor, translator, or compiler in addition to author

N:
16. Yves Bonnefoy, New and Selected Poems, ed. John
Naughton and Anthony Rudolf (Chicago: University of Chicago
Press, 1995), 22.

B:

Bonnefoy, Yves. New and Selected Poems. Edited by John

Naughton and Anthony Rudolf. Chicago: University of Chicago
Press, 1995.

Chapter or other part of a book

N:

B:

Preface, foreword, introduction, or similar part of a book

N:

B:

Book published electronically

N:

B:

5. Andrew Wiese, The House I Live In: Race, Class, and African American Suburban Dreams
in the Postwar United States, in The New Suburban History, ed. Kevin M. Kruse and Thomas
J. Sugrue (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 2006), 1012.
Wiese, Andrew. The House I Live In: Race, Class, and African American Suburban Dreams in
the Postwar United States. In The New Suburban History, edited by Kevin M. Kruse and
Thomas J. Sugrue, 99119. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 2006.

17. James Rieger, introduction to Frankenstein; or, The Modern Prometheus, by Mary
Wollstonecraft Shelley (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1982), xxxxi.
Rieger, James. Introduction to Frankenstein; or, The Modern Prometheus, by Mary
Wollstonecraft Shelley, xixxxvii. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1982.

2. Philip B. Kurland and Ralph Lerner, eds., The Founders Constitution (Chicago: University of
Chicago Press, 1987), http://press-pubs.uchicago.edu/founders/ (accessed June 27, 2006).
Kurland, Philip B., and Ralph Lerner, eds. The Founders Constitution. Chicago: University of
Chicago Press, 1987. http://press-pubs.uchicago.edu/founders/. Also available in print form
and as a CD-ROM.

Article in a print journal

N:
8. John Maynard Smith, The Origin of Altruism, Nature 393 (1998): 639.

B:
Smith, John Maynard. The Origin of Altruism. Nature 393 (1998): 63940.

Article in an online journal

N:
33. Mark A. Hlatky et al., "Quality-of-Life and Depressive Symptoms in Postmenopausal
Women after Receiving Hormone Therapy: Results from the Heart and Estrogen/Progestin
Replacement Study (HERS) Trial," Journal of the American Medical Association 287, no. 5
(2002), http://jama.ama-assn.org/issues/v287n5/rfull/joc10108.html#aainfo.

B:
Hlatky, Mark A., Derek Boothroyd, Eric Vittinghoff, Penny Sharp, and Mary A. Whooley.
"Quality-of-Life and Depressive Symptoms in Postmenopausal Women after Receiving
Hormone Therapy: Results from the Heart and Estrogen/Progestin Replacement Study
(HERS) Trial." Journal of the American Medical Association 287, no. 5 (February 6, 2002),
http://jama.ama-assn.org/issues/v287n5/rfull/joc10108.html#aainfo.

Newspaper article: may be cited in running text (As William Niederkorn noted in a
New York Times article on June 20, 2002, . . . ) instead of in a note, and may be
omitted from a bibliography as well. N:
10. William S. Niederkorn, A Scholar Recants on His Shakespeare Discovery, New York
Times, June 20, 2002, Arts section, Midwest edition.

B:
Niederkorn, William S. A Scholar Recants on His Shakespeare Discovery. New York
Times, June 20, 2002, Arts section, Midwest edition.

Book review
N:

B:

Thesis or dissertation
N:

B:

Paper presented at a meeting or conference

N:

B:

1. James Gorman, Endangered Species, review of The Last American Man, by

Elizabeth Gilbert, New York Times Book Review, June 2, 2002, 16.
Gorman, James. Endangered Species. Review of The Last American Man, by Elizabeth
Gilbert. New York Times Book Review, June 2, 2002.

22. M. Amundin, Click Repetition Rate Patterns in Communicative Sounds from the
Harbour Porpoise, Phocoena phocoena (PhD diss., Stockholm University, 1991), 2229,
35.
Amundin, M. Click Repetition Rate Patterns in Communicative Sounds from the
Harbour Porpoise, Phocoena phocoena. PhD diss., Stockholm University, 1991.

13. Brian Doyle, Howling Like Dogs: Metaphorical Language in Psalm 59 (paper
presented at the annual international meeting for the Society of Biblical Literature,
Berlin, Germany, June 1922, 2002).
Doyle, Brian. Howling Like Dogs: Metaphorical Language in Psalm 59. Paper presented
at the annual international meeting for the Society of Biblical Literature, Berlin,
Germany, June 1922, 2002.

Web site: may be cited in running text (On its Web site, the Evanston Public
Library Board of Trustees states...) and they are commonly omitted from a
bibliography list as well.
N:

B:

Weblog entry or comment: may be cited in running text (In a comment posted
to the Becker-Posner Blog on March 6, 2006, Peter Pearson noted...) instead
of in a note and they are commonly omitted from a bibliography list as well.
N:

B:

E-mail message: may be cited in running text (In an e-mail message to the
author on October 31, 2005, John Doe revealed . . .) instead of in a note
citation, and they are rarely listed in a bibliography list.
N:

11. Evanston Public Library Board of Trustees, Evanston Public Library Strategic Plan,
20002010: A Decade of Outreach, Evanston Public Library,
http://www.epl.org/library/strategic-plan-00.html.
Evanston Public Library Board of Trustees. Evanston Public Library Strategic Plan,
20002010: A Decade of Outreach. Evanston Public Library.
http://www.epl.org/library/strategic-plan-00.html (accessed June 1, 2005).

8. Peter Pearson, comment on The New American Dilemma: Illegal Immigration, The
Becker-Posner Blog, comment posted March 6, 2006, http://www.becker-posnerblog.com/archives/2006/03/the_new_america.html#c080052 (accessed March 28,
2006).
Becker-Posner Blog, The. http://www.becker-posner-blog.com/.

2. John Doe, e-mail message to author, October 31, 2005.

Abbreviations

Footnotes and/or reference lists may contain the abbreviations Ibid. and/or op. cit.
DEFINITIONS

Ibid. (abbreviation for the Latin Ibidem, meaning "The same").

Refers to the same author and source ( e.g., book, journal) in the immediately preceding
reference.
op. cit. (abbreviation for the Latin opus citatum, meaning "the work cited").
Refers to the reference listed earlier by the same author.

Ibid. refers to the immediately preceding reference; op. cit. refers to the prior
reference by the same author.
EXAMPLES

R. Poirer, "Learning physics," (Academic, New York, 1993), p. 4.

Ibid., p. 9.
T. Eliot, "Astrophysics," (Springer, Berlin, 1989), p. 141.
R. Builder, J Phys Chem 20(3) 1654-57, 1991.
Eliot, op. cit., p.148.

Other:
Idem: From Latin idem "the same". This repeats the previous author. It is rarely
used today.
Loc.cit.: From Latin loco citato "in the place cited". This repeats the title and page
number for a given author. It is not often used today.

cf. = confer (compare)

e.g. = exempli gratia (for example)
ed. (edition, editor; plural: eds)
et al. = et alii (and other authors)
sq./sqq. = sequens (continues on the next page/s)
ibid. = ibidem (same author, same work. It is followed
by the page number)
id. = idem (it follows ibid. same author, work, page)
i.e. = id est (that is)
infra (see below)
loc. cit. = loco citato (similar to op. cit., only used when
the reference is made to the same page)
ms. = manuscriptum (manuscript; plural: mss.)
op. cit. = opere citato (cited work)
passim (from place to place)
supra (see above)
vol. (volume/s)

Power point presentations

Appeal through:
Ability to build up
more complex
pictures by adding
in more detail on
each slide in a
series.
clarity and legibility

Disliked if:
The presentation
displays poor
typographic layouts
and odd colour
combinations;
lecturer simply
reads out the
Power-Point slides.

7 x 7 rule: use no more than seven words per line,

and seven lines per slide.

Handouts
A summary version of the paper available as a hand-out
during the talk.
It helps listeners follow the presentation and grasp its
overall structure.
It may be helpful to reproduce copies of any of the key
PowerPoint slides, but it is unwise just to present them all in
reduced size.
Requirements:
Must be readable;
Must contain the title of the talk, the speakers name and
institutional address, and the date and place of delivery.

Text revision - Hartley, J.

(1997). Writing the thesis
1 Read through the text asking yourself:
Who is the text for?

2 Read through the text again, but this time ask

yourself:

What changes do I need to make to help the reader?

How can I make the text easier to follow?

3 To make these changes you may need:

to make big or global changes (e.g. rewrite sections); or

to make small or minor text changes (e.g. change the
original text slightly).

4 Global changes you

might like to consider
are:
re-sequencing parts of
the text
rewriting sections in
simpler prose
adding examples
changing examples for
better ones
deleting parts that seem
confusing.

5 Text changes you might

like to consider are:

using simpler wording

using shorter sentences
using shorter paragraphs
using active rather than
passive tenses
substituting positives for
negatives
writing sequences in
order
spacing numbered
sequences or lists down
the page (as here).

6 Keep reading through the revised

text from start to finish to see if you
want to make any more global changes.
7 Repeat this whole procedure on the
revised text some time after making
your initial revisions (say twenty-four
hours), and do this without looking
back at the original text.
8 Repeat stage 7 several times, but
draw the line eventually!

GOOD LUCK!