Static Model

Integrated Reservoir Study

DATA
MANAGEMENT

RESERVOIR
CHARACTERIZATION

STATIC
MODEL

Data Flows

DYNAMIC
MODEL

Work Flows

Static Model
PVT/Fluid
Saturations
Model

Reservoir
Flow Units

Basic Engineering
Results

Property
Distributions
Model

Static
Reservoir
Model

Static Model Design

Stratigraphic layering/coordinates

or

Multiple Realizations
Volumetrics / Mapping
Assess Connectivity
Scale-Up for Flow Simulation

Cell-Based Modeling
Cell-based,
stochastic, 3-D
modeling of lithology,
porosity and
permeability in a
sequential order
Preserves major
heterogeneities
Statistical control
is obtained from
cores, logs,
seismic and
outcrops

Lithology

Porosity

Permeability

Object-Based Modeling
Object-based,
stochastic, 3-D
modeling of well
defined morphologic
objects
Pseudo genetically
simulate
depositional history
Statistical control is
obtained from
cores, logs, seismic
and outcrops

Static Mode GOAL

Develop and quantify geological

reservoir architecture, define
flow units and establish 3D
distribution of flow properties for
reservoir simulator input

Static Reservoir Modeling

Develop Reservoir Architecture/
Flow Units
Deterministic Model
Cells

Stochastic Model

Objects

Cells

Objects

Geocellular Model
(millions of cells)

Upscaling
(thousands of cells)

Reservoir Simulator

Dynamic
Modeling

Geological Model versus Reality

Anisotropy
- Directional Variation in Flow Properties
Heterogeneity
- Spatial Variation in Reservoir Architecture/
Properties

Lateral Pay Discontinuities

Producing
well

Injection
well

Reservoir Sandstone
Trapped oil

Shale Barrier

Completion Interval Inconsistencies

Producing
well

Injection
well

Trapped oil lateral pay

discontinuities

Trapped
Oil - Completions

Lateral Pay Discontinuities

Effect of infill drilling
Producing
well

Infill
well

Injection
well

Scales in Reservoir Characterization

Relative Volume

300 m

Gigascopic

50 m

300 m

Megascopic

5m

150 m
2m

Macroscopic

Microscopic
(modified from Hurst, 1993)

1m
cm
mm - m

Well Test

14

10

Reservoir Model
12
2 x 10
Grid Cell

Wireline Log
Interval
Core Plug
Geological
Thin Section

3 x 10
5 x 10
1

7
2

Key Architectural Heterogeneties

Layercake
High continuity baffles
Pinch outs
Permeability Profiles
Jigsaw
Thief zones
Orientation of flow units
Permeability contrasts
Local baffles
Labyrinth
Orientation flow units
Interconnectivity (N/G < .35)
Dead end gravity traps

Geological Architecture Will

Determine the Modeling Approach

Layer-cake
Deterministic layer boundaries
Variogram based Phi-K calculations

Deterministic

Jigsaw
Indicator simulation of lithotypes
Variogram based Phi-K calculations

Deterministic
&
Probabilistic

Labyrinth
Object based modeling of sand bodies
Variogram based Phi-K calculations

Probabilistic

Reservoir Flow Units

STATIC MODEL

PVT/Fluid
Saturations
Model

Reservoir
Flow
Units

Basic Engineering Results

PTA, PDA, MBA

Property
Distributions
Model

Static
Reservoir
Model

Definition - Flow Unit

A mappable portion of the total reservoir, within
which geological and petrophysical properties
that affect the flow of fluids are consistent and
predictably different from the properties of other
reservoir rock volumes.
(modified from Ebanks and Others, 1992)

Some Characteristics of Flow Units

A flow unit is a specific volume of a reservoir,
which is composed of one or more reservoir
quality lithologies and any nonreservoir quality
rock types within that same volume, as well as the
fluids they contain
A flow unit is correlative and mappable at the
interwell scale
A flow unit zonation is recognizable on wireline
logs
A flow unit may be in communication with other
flow units

Comments on Flow Units

Flow units are internally consistent but may
not necessarily be entirely homogeneous in
geological and petrophysical properties
Flow units may contain more than one reservoir
quality lithology.
Flow units may contain nonreservoir features,
such as shale and cemented layers.

Geological and Petrophysical Data Used to Define Flow

Units
Core Lithofacies

Core Pore
Plugs Types

Petrophysical
Data

Gamma Ray Flow

Log
Units

Capillary
vs k Pressure

5
4
3

(modified from Ebanks and others, 1992)

Deterministic Methods
Traditional mathematical, engineering,
geologic, and other scientific methods
that produce unique solution to the
posed problem without involving methods
of random functions.
God does not play dice
A. Einstein

Stochastic Model
a definition
A set of simplified, equiprobable
realizations of the studied object
that honors available data
Properties at unsampled locations
are estimated using stochastic
methods
Methods of random functions
used for the solution of geological
and engineering problems and
statistical evaluation of results

Deterministic Modeling

Mapping Layer Properties

Contours = (Net Thickness) / (Net Average Porosity)

Color = Thickness (feet)

Length of Shale Barrier as a Function of

Depositional Environment
100

Percentage Longer

Marine
Deltaic
Barrier
50

Distributary
Channel

Coarse
Point
Bar

0
0

500

1000

Delta Fringe
and
Delta Plain

1500

Length of Shale (Feet)

2000

Log Property Mapping

A Seismic Guided Porosity Map

Geostatistical Modeling

Methodology in Geostatistics
Define area of interest.
- Scoping analysis
Model spatial continuity
- Variogram modeling
Estimate spatial distribution
of properties
Kriging
Conditional simulation
Object modeling

Spatial Continuity
Exists in most earth science data sets
On the contour map low values tend to
be near other low values and high value
tend to be near other high values
Porosity and permeability fields are
never truly random
Variogram quantifies spatial continuity

Kriging (Estimation) and

Simulation
Kriging
properties
definition and
derivation
example

Cross validation
Simulation

Kriging (Estimation)
Developed by D. Krige 1951
Linear, unbiased, exact, minimizes error
variance

Problems in Application of Kriging

to Reservoir Modeling
Underrepresents the variability
Deterministic and cannot be used for
estimation of uncertainty
The fields generated tend to be
more Gaussian (normal distribution)
than original

Cross Validation
Purpose:
To evaluate accuracy of prediction
Drop one point at a time,
Estimate value at the dropped location
using kriging
Compare true and estimated values

Cross Validation
100

K Estimated

10

0.1

0.01
0.01

0.1

1
K True

10

100

Cokriging
Problem:
Petrophysical data (e.g. porosity,permeability)
is sampled sparsely (i.e. at wells)
Seismic data (amplitude) is sampled densely
but does not directly measure desired
property (e.g. porosity or permeability)

A Solution:
Cokriging correlates desired undersampled
reservoir property to widely sampled
parameter

Cokriging
Well Data

CrossVariogram
Model

Example Using
Variogram Well and Seismic
Model
Data

Cokriging
Cokriged Map
Varioram
Model

Seismic Data

(modified from Wolf and others, 1994)

Stochastic Modeling

Gaussian Simulation
(cell-based model)

Simulation
Krigging
smooth, good for detecting trends
bad for building reservoir simulation model

Simulation
reproduces histogram, honors variability
good for building reservoir simulation model
allows to assess the uncertainty with multiple
realizations

Stochastic Reservoir Modeling

Reality

Distribution of Rock/Fluid Properties

Model

Distribution of the Rock/Fluid Properties

single true distribution

Recovery Process

multiple stochastic models

Recovery Process

actual process implemented

Field Response

numerical model of process

Field Response

Simulation Vs. Kriging

Simulation:
Quantifying Porosity Uncertainty

Probability of Porosity
above 8%

Probability of Porosity
above 12%

Sequential Gaussian
Simulation
Transform the data to normal distribution
Assign data values to closest grid nodes
(known points)
Establish random path through all grid nodes
Visit each grid node once

Sequential Gaussian
Simulation
Visit each grid node once
find informed (by input and previously simulated)
cells
construct conditional distribution by krigging (local
mean and variance define Gaussian distribution)
draw a random number (norminv(rand(),m,)
from histogram

Check the results

Stochastic Realization of Permeability in a

Cross Section Through Eolian Sandstone
Well

Well

Well

No Vertical Exaggeration
Individual Blocks are 5 Feet by 50 Feet

Permeability - Khmax
<0.1 md

0.1 - 0.5 md

0.5 - 2.5 md

2.5 - 15 md

>20 md
(modified from Cox and Others, 1994)

Stochastic Realization of Facies in a Cross

Section Through Eolian Sandstone
Well

Well

Well

No Vertical Exaggeration
Individual Blocks are 5 Feet by 50 Feet

Low-Angle
Wind Ripple

High-Angle
Wind Ripple

Mixed

Grain
Flow
(modified from Cox and Others, 1994)

Stochastic Modeling

Object Model
Boolean Simulation Example

Boolean Simulation of Sand Channels

Conditioning Data

Sand
Shale

(modified from Srivastava, 1994)

Boolean Simulation of Sand Channels

Honoring Well Data
Sand bodies randomly located
to coincide with sands in wells

(modified from Srivastava, 1994)

Boolean Simulation of Sand Channels

Interwell Bodies
Random sand body conflicts with
well and must be dropped or moved

(modified from Srivastava, 1994)

Boolean Simulation of Sand Channels

Final Realization
Sand bodies added until net-to-gross
ratio reaches desired target

(modified from Srivastava, 1994)