163 BBF204 IEN00566 8706 440 Chap3

Systems Design: Job-Order Costing
Chapter 8
2012 McGraw-Hill Education (Asia)
Learning Objective 1
Distinguish between
process costing and joborder costing and identify
companies that would use
each costing method.
McGraw-Hill Education (Asia)

McGraw-Hill/Irwin
Garrison, Noreen, Brewer, Cheng & Yuen
Slide 2
Types of Product Costing Systems
Process
Costing
Job-order
Costing
A company
company produces
produces many
many units
units of
of aa single
single
product.
product.
One
One unit
unit of
of product
product is
is indistinguishable
indistinguishable from
from
other
other units
units of
of product.
product.
The
The identical
identical nature
nature of
of each
each unit
unit of
of product
product enables
enables
assigning
assigning the
the same
same average
average cost
cost per
per unit.
unit.
McGraw-Hill/Irwin
Slide 3
Process
Costing
Job-order
Costing
A company
company produces
produces many
many units
units of
of aa single
single
product.
Example
product.
Example companies:
companies:
Weyerhaeuser
(paper
manufacturing)
1.One
Weyerhaeuser
(paper
manufacturing) from
unit
is
1.
One
unit of
of product
product
is indistinguishable
indistinguishable
from
other
of
Reynolds
Aluminum
2.units
Reynolds
Aluminum (refining
(refining aluminum
aluminum ingots)
ingots)
other2.
units
of product.
product.
Coca-Cola
bottling
3.The
Coca-Cola
(mixing
and
bottling
beverages)
identical
nature
of
unit
of
3.
The
identical(mixing
nature and
of each
each
unit beverages)
of product
product enables
enables
assigning
assigning the
the same
same average
average cost
cost per
per unit.
unit.
McGraw-Hill/Irwin
Slide 4
Process
Costing
Job-order
Costing
Many
Many different
different products
products are
are produced
produced each
each period.
period.
Products
Products are
are manufactured
manufactured to
to order.
order.
The
The unique
unique nature
nature of
of each
each order
order requires
requires tracing
tracing or
or
allocating
allocating costs
costs to
to each
each job,
job, and
and maintaining
maintaining cost
cost
records
records for
for each
each job.
job.

McGraw-Hill/Irwin
Slide 5
Process
Costing
Job-order
Costing
Many
products
Many different
different
products are
are produced
produced each
each period.
period.
Example
companies:
Example companies:
are
to
Products
are manufactured
manufactured
to order.
order.
1.
Boeing
manufacturing)
1.Products
Boeing (aircraft
(aircraft
manufacturing)
2.
Bechtel
International
(large
scale
construction)
unique
nature
order
requires
tracing
2.The
Bechtel
International
(large
scale
construction)
The
unique
nature of
of each
each
order
requires
tracing or
or
costs
to
job,
maintaining
allocating
costs
to each
each
job, and
and
maintaining cost
cost
3.
Walt
Studios
(movie
production)
3.allocating
Walt Disney
Disney
Studios
(movie
production)
records
records for
for each
each job.
job.

McGraw-Hill/Irwin
Slide 6
Comparing Process and Job-Order Costing

McGraw-Hill/Irwin
Slide 7
Quick Check
Which
Which of
of the
the following
following companies
companies would
would be
be
likely
likely to
to use
use job-order
job-order costing
costing rather
rather than
than
process
process costing?
costing?
a.
a. Scott
Scott Paper
Paper Company
Company for
for Kleenex.
Kleenex.
b.
b. Architects.
Architects.
c.
c. Heinz
Heinz for
for ketchup.
ketchup.
d.
d. Caterer
Caterer for
for aa wedding
wedding reception.
reception.
e.
e. Builder
Builder of
of commercial
commercial fishing
fishing vessels.
vessels.

McGraw-Hill/Irwin
Slide 8
Quick Check
Which
Which of
of the
the following
following companies
companies would
would be
be
likely
likely to
to use
use job-order
job-order costing
costing rather
rather than
than
process
process costing?
costing?
a.
a. Scott
Scott Paper
Paper Company
Company for
for Kleenex.
Kleenex.
b.
b. Architects.
Architects.
c.
c. Heinz
Heinz for
for ketchup.
ketchup.
d.
d. Caterer
Caterer for
for aa wedding
wedding reception.
reception.
e.
e. Builder
Builder of
of commercial
commercial fishing
fishing vessels.
vessels.

McGraw-Hill/Irwin
Slide 9
Identify the documents

used in a job-order costing
system.

McGraw-Hill/Irwin
Slide 10
Job-Order Costing An Overview
Direct Materials
Job No. 1
Direct Labor
Manufacturing
Overhead

McGraw-Hill/Irwin
Job No. 2
Job No. 3
Charge
direct
material and
direct labor
costs to
each job as
work is
performed.
Slide 11
Indirect Manufacturing Costs
Direct Materials
Job No. 1
Direct Labor
Manufacturing
Overhead

McGraw-Hill/Irwin
Job No. 2
Job No. 3
Manufacturing
Manufacturing
Overhead,
Overhead,
including
including
indirect
indirect
materials
materials and
and
indirect
indirect labor
labor,,
are
are allocated
allocated
to
to all
all jobs
jobs
rather
rather than
than
directly
directly traced
traced
to
to each
each job.
job.
Slide 12
The Job Cost Sheet

PearCo Job Cost Sheet
Job Number A - 143
Department B3
Item Wooden cargo crate
Direct Materials
Req. No. Amount
Direct Labor
Manufacturing Overhead
Ticket Hours Amount Hours
Rate
Amount
Cost Summary
Direct Materials
Direct Labor
Manufacturing Overhead
Total Cost
Unit Product Cost

McGraw-Hill/Irwin
Date Initiated 3-4-09

Date Completed
Units Completed
Units Shipped
Date Number Balance
Slide 13
Measuring Direct Materials Cost
Will E. Delite
McGraw-Hill/Irwin
Slide 14
Measuring Direct Materials Cost

McGraw-Hill/Irwin
Slide 15
Measuring Direct Labor Costs

McGraw-Hill/Irwin
Slide 16
Job-Order Cost Accounting

McGraw-Hill/Irwin
Slide 17
Compute predetermined
overhead rates and explain
why estimated overhead
costs (rather than actual
overhead costs) are used in
the costing process.

McGraw-Hill/Irwin
Slide 18
Why Use an Allocation Base?

Manufacturing overhead is applied to jobs that are
in process. An allocation base, such as direct
labor hours, direct labor dollars, or machine hours,
is used to assign manufacturing overhead to
individual jobs.
We use an allocation base because:
1.It is impossible or difficult to trace overhead costs to particular jobs.
2.Manufacturing overhead consists of many different items ranging
from the grease used in machines to production managers salary.
3.Many types of manufacturing overhead costs are fixed even though
output fluctuates during the period.

McGraw-Hill/Irwin
Slide 19
Manufacturing Overhead Application

The predetermined overhead rate (POHR) used
to apply overhead to jobs is determined before
the period begins.

McGraw-Hill/Irwin
Slide 20
The Need for a POHR

Using a predetermined rate makes it
possible to estimate total job costs sooner.
Actual overhead for the period is not

known until the end of the period.
McGraw-Hill/Irwin
Slide 21
Determining Predetermined Overhead

Rates
Predetermined overhead rates are calculated
using a three-step process.
Estimate
Estimate the
the level
level of
of
production
production for
for the
the
period.
period.
Estimate
Estimate total
total amount
amount
of
of the
the allocation
allocation base
base
for
for the
the period.
period.
Estimate
Estimate total
total
manufacturing
manufacturing
overhead
overhead costs.
costs.
POHR =
McGraw-Hill/Irwin
Slide 22
Application of Manufacturing Overhead

Based
Based on
on estimates,
estimates, and
and
determined
determined before
before the
the
period
period begins.
begins.
Overhead applied = POHR Actual activity

Actual
Actual amount
amount of
of allocation
allocation is
is
based
based upon
upon the
the actual
actual level
level of
of
activity
activity (normal
(normal costing
costing system).
system).

McGraw-Hill/Irwin
Slide 23
Overhead Application Rate

POHR =
Estimated total manufacturing

overhead cost for the coming period
Estimated total units in the
allocation base for the coming period
$640,000
POHR =
160,000 direct labor hours (DLH)
POHR = $4.00 per DLH

For each direct labor hour worked on a particular job,
$4.00 of factory overhead will be applied to that job.
McGraw-Hill/Irwin
Slide 24

McGraw-Hill/Irwin
Slide 25

McGraw-Hill/Irwin
Slide 26
Interpreting the Average Unit Cost

The average unit cost should not be interpreted
as the costs that would actually be incurred if an
additional unit was produced.
Fixed overhead would not change if another unit
was produced, so the incremental cost of
another unit is something less than $118.

McGraw-Hill/Irwin
Slide 27
Quick Check
Job WR53 at NW Fab, Inc. required $200 of
direct materials and 10 direct labor hours at
$15 per hour. Estimated total overhead for
the year was $760,000 and estimated direct
labor hours were 20,000. What would be
recorded as the cost of job WR53?
a. $200.
b. $350.
c. $380.
d. $730.
McGraw-Hill/Irwin
Slide 28
Quick Check
Job WR53 at NW Fab, Inc. required $200 of
direct materials and 10 direct labor hours at
$15 per hour. Estimated total overhead for
the year was $760,000 and estimated direct
labor hours were 20,000. What would be
recorded as the cost of job WR53?
a. $200.
b. $350.
c. $380.
d. $730.
McGraw-Hill/Irwin
Slide 29
Understand the flow of costs

in a job-order costing system
and prepare appropriate
journal entries to record
costs.

McGraw-Hill/Irwin
Slide 30
Job-Order Costing
Document Flow Summary
A
A sales
sales order
order is
is the
the
basis
basis of
of issuing
issuing aa
production
production order.
order.

McGraw-Hill/Irwin
A
A production
production
order
order initiates
initiates
work
work on
on aa job.
job.
Slide 31
Job-Order Costing
Materials
Materials
used
used may
may be
be
either
either direct
direct or
or
indirect.
indirect.
Direct
materials
Job Cost
Sheets
Materials
Requisition
Indirect
materials

McGraw-Hill/Irwin
Manufacturing
Overhead
Account
Slide 32
Job-Order Costing
An
employees
time may be either
direct or
indirect.
Direct
Labor
Job Cost
Sheets
Employee Time
Ticket
Indirect
Labor

McGraw-Hill/Irwin
Manufacturing
Overhead
Account
Slide 33
Job-Order Costing
Materials
Requisition
Other
Actual OH
Charges
Employee
Time Ticket
McGraw-Hill/Irwin
Indirect
Material
POHR
rate used
to apply
Manufacturing overhead
Overhead
Account
Job Cost
Sheets
Indirect
Labor
Slide 34
Learning Objectives 4 and 7

Understand the flow of costs in a joborder costing system and prepare
appropriate journal entries to record
costs.
Use T-accounts to show the flow of
costs in a job-order costing system.

McGraw-Hill/Irwin
Slide 35
Job-Order Costing: The Flow of Costs

The transactions (in Taccount and journal
entry form) that capture
the flow of costs in a
job-order costing
system are illustrated on
the following slides.

McGraw-Hill/Irwin
Slide 36
The Purchase and Issue of Raw Materials

Raw Materials
Material Direct
Purchases Materials
Indirect
Materials
Work in Process
(Job Cost Sheet)
Direct
Materials
Mfg. Overhead
Actual Applied
Indirect
Materials

McGraw-Hill/Irwin
Slide 37
Cost Flows Material Purchases

Raw material purchases are recorded in an
inventory account.

McGraw-Hill/Irwin
Slide 38
Cost Flows Material Usage

Direct materials issued to a job increase Work in
Process and decrease Raw Materials. Indirect
materials used are charged to Manufacturing
Overhead and also decrease Raw Materials.

McGraw-Hill/Irwin
Slide 39
The Recording of Labor Costs

Salaries and
Wages Payable
Direct
Labor
Indirect
Labor
Work in Process
(Job Cost Sheet)
Direct
Direct
Materials
Labor
Mfg. Overhead
Actual Applied
Indirect
Materials
Indirect
Labor
McGraw-Hill/Irwin
Slide 40
The Recording of Labor Costs

The cost of direct labor incurred increases Work
in Process and the cost of indirect labor
increases Manufacturing Overhead.

McGraw-Hill/Irwin
Slide 41
Recording Actual Manufacturing Overhead

Salaries and
Wages Payable
Direct
Labor
Indirect
Labor
Work in Process
(Job Cost Sheet)
Direct
Direct
Materials
Labor
Mfg. Overhead
Actual Applied
Indirect
Materials
Indirect
Labor
Other
Overhead
McGraw-Hill/Irwin
Slide 42
Recording Actual Manufacturing Overhead

In addition to indirect materials and indirect labor,
other manufacturing overhead costs are charged
to the Manufacturing Overhead account as they
are incurred.

McGraw-Hill/Irwin
Slide 43
Apply overhead cost to

Work in Process using a
predetermined overhead
rate.

McGraw-Hill/Irwin
Slide 44
Applying Manufacturing Overhead

Salaries and
Wages Payable
Direct
Labor
Indirect
Labor
Mfg. Overhead
Actual Applied
Indirect
Materials Overhead
Indirect
Applied to
Labor
Work in
Other
Process
Overhead
McGraw-Hill/Irwin
Work in Process
(Job Cost Sheet)
Direct
Direct
Materials
Labor
Overhead
Applied
If actual and
and applied
manufacturing overhead
are not equal, a year-end
adjustment is required.
required.
Slide 45
Applying Manufacturing Overhead

Work in Process is increased when Manufacturing
Overhead is applied to jobs.

McGraw-Hill/Irwin
Slide 46
Accounting for Nonmanufacturing Cost

Nonmanufacturing costs are not assigned to
individual jobs, rather they are expensed in the
period incurred.
Examples:
Examples:
1.
Salary
1.
Salary expense
expense of
of employees
employees
who
who work
work in
in aa marketing,
marketing, selling,
selling,
or
or administrative
administrative capacity.
capacity.
2.
Advertising
2.
Advertising expenses
expenses are
are expensed
expensed
in
in the
the period
period incurred.
incurred.
McGraw-Hill/Irwin
Slide 47
Accounting for Nonmanufacturing Cost

Nonmanufacturing costs (period expenses) are
charged to expense as they are incurred.

McGraw-Hill/Irwin
Slide 48
Prepare schedules of cost

of goods manufactured
and cost of goods sold.

McGraw-Hill/Irwin
Slide 49
Transferring Completed Units

Work in Process
(Job Cost Sheet )
Direct
Direct
Materials
Labor
Overhead
Applied

McGraw-Hill/Irwin
Finished Goods
Cost of
Goods
Mfd.
Cost of
Goods
Mfd.
Slide 50
Transferring Completed Units

As jobs are completed, the Cost of Goods
Manufactured is transferred to Finished Goods from
Work in Process.

McGraw-Hill/Irwin
Slide 51
Transferring Units Sold

Work in Process
(Job Cost Sheet)
Direct
Direct
Materials
Labor
Overhead
Applied
Finished Goods
Cost of
Goods
Mfd.
Cost of
Goods
Mfd.
Cost of
Goods
Sold
Cost of Goods Sold

Cost of
Goods
Sold

McGraw-Hill/Irwin
Slide 52
Transferring Units Sold

When finished goods are sold, two entries are
required: (1) to record the sale, and (2) to record
the Cost of Goods Sold.

McGraw-Hill/Irwin
Slide 53
Compute underapplied or
overapplied overhead cost and
prepare the journal entry to
close the balance in
Manufacturing Overhead to the
appropriate accounts.

McGraw-Hill/Irwin
Slide 54
Problems of Overhead Application

The difference between the overhead cost applied to
Work in Process and the actual overhead costs of a
period is referred to as either underapplied or
overapplied overhead.
Underapplied overhead
exists when the amount of
overhead applied to jobs
during the period using the
rate is less than the total
amount of overhead actually
incurred during the period.
McGraw-Hill/Irwin
Overapplied overhead
exists when the amount of
overhead applied to jobs
during the period using the
rate is greater than the total
amount of overhead actually
incurred during the period.
Slide 55
Overhead Application Example

PearCos actual overhead for the year was $650,000
with a total of 170,000 direct labor hours worked on
jobs.
How much total overhead was applied to PearCos jobs
during the year? Use PearCos predetermined
overhead rate of $4.00 per direct labor hour.
Overhead Applied During the Period

Applied Overhead = POHR Actual Direct Labor Hours
Applied Overhead = $4.00 per DLH 170,000 DLH = $680,000

McGraw-Hill/Irwin
Slide 56
Overhead Application Example

PearCos actual overhead for the year was
$650,000 with a total of 170,000 direct labor
hours worked on jobs.
How much total overhead was applied to PearCos
jobs during the year? Use PearCos
predetermined overhead rate of $4.00 per direct
labor hour.
Overhead Applied During the Period
Applied Overhead = POHR Actual Direct Labor Hours

Applied Overhead = $4.00 per DLH 170,000 DLH = $680,000

McGraw-Hill/Irwin
Slide 57
Quick Check
Tiger,
Tiger,Inc.
Inc. had
had actual
actual manufacturing
overhead
costs
costs of
of $1,210,000
$1,210,000 and
and aa predetermined
predetermined
overhead
overhead rate
rate of
of $4.00
$4.00 per
per machine
machine hour.
hour. Tiger,
Tiger,
Inc.
Inc. worked
worked 290,000
290,000 machine
machine hours
hours during
during the
the
period.
period. Tigers
Tigersmanufacturing
overhead is
is
a.
a.
b.
b.
$50,000
$50,000 overapplied.
overapplied.
$50,000
$50,000 underapplied.
underapplied.
c.
c.
d.
d.
$60,000
overapplied.
$60,000
underapplied.

McGraw-Hill/Irwin
Slide 58
Quick Check
Tiger,
Tiger,Inc.
Inc. had
had actual
actual manufacturing
overhead
costs
aa predetermined
costs of
of $1,210,000
$1,210,000 and
and
predetermined
Overhead
Applied
Overhead
Applied
overhead
machine
Tiger,
$4.00
per
290,000
hours
$4.00
per hour
hourhour.
290,000
hours
overhead rate
rate of
of $4.00
$4.00 per
per
machine
hour.
Tiger,
== $1,160,000
$1,160,000
Inc.
hours
Inc. worked
worked 290,000
290,000 machine
machine
hours during
during the
the
Underapplied
Overhead
period.
overhead
Underapplied
Overheadis
period. Tigers
Tigersmanufacturing
manufacturing
overhead
is
$1,210,000
$1,210,000 -- $1,160,000
$1,160,000
== $50,000
$50,000
a.
a.
b.
b.
$50,000
overapplied.
$50,000
underapplied.
c.
c.
d.
d.
$60,000
overapplied.
$60,000
underapplied.

McGraw-Hill/Irwin
Slide 59
Disposition of Under- or Overapplied

Overhead
PearCos Method
$30,000
may be allocated
to these accounts.
$30,000 may be
closed directly to
cost of goods sold.
OR
Work in
Process
Finished
Goods
Cost of
Goods Sold
McGraw-Hill/Irwin
Cost of
Goods Sold
Slide 60
Disposition of
Under- or Overapplied Overhead
PearCos Cost
of Goods Sold
Unadjusted
Balance
Actual Overhead
overhead applied
costs
to jobs
$30,000
Adjusted
Balance

McGraw-Hill/Irwin
PearCos
Mfg. Overhead
$650,000
$30,000
$680,000
$30,000
overapplied
Slide 61
Allocating Under- or Overapplied

Overhead Between Accounts
Assume the overhead applied in ending Work in
Process Inventory, ending Finished Goods
Inventory, and Cost of Goods Sold is shown below:

McGraw-Hill/Irwin
Slide 62

We would complete the following allocation of
$30,000 overapplied overhead:
10%
10% $30,000
$30,000

McGraw-Hill/Irwin
Slide 63


McGraw-Hill/Irwin
Slide 64
Overapplied and Underapplied Manufacturing

Overhead - Summary
PearCos
Method
If Manufacturing
Overhead is . . .
UNDERAPPLIED
Alternative 1
Close to Cost
of Goods Sold
Alternative 2
INCREASE
Cost of Goods Sold
INCREASE
Work in Process
Finished Goods
Cost of Goods Sold
DECREASE
Cost of Goods Sold
DECREASE
Work in Process
Finished Goods
Cost of Goods Sold
(Applied OH is less
than actual OH)
OVERAPPLIED
(Applied OH is greater
than actual OH)
Allocation
More
More accurate
accurate but
but more
more complex
complex to
to compute.
compute.
McGraw-Hill/Irwin
Slide 65
Quick Check
What
What effect
effect will
will the
the overapplied
overapplied overhead
overhead have
have
on
on PearCos
PearCos net
net operating
operating income?
income?
a.
a. Net
Net operating
operating income
income will
will increase.
increase.
b.
b. Net
Net operating
operating income
income will
will be
be unaffected.
unaffected.
c.
c. Net
Net operating
operating income
income will
will decrease.
decrease.

McGraw-Hill/Irwin
Slide 66
Quick Check
What
What effect
effect will
will the
the overapplied
overapplied overhead
overhead have
have
on
on PearCos
PearCos net
net operating
operating income?
income?
a.
a. Net
Net operating
operating income
income will
will increase.
increase.
b.
b. Net
Net operating
operating income
income will
will be
be unaffected.
unaffected.
c.
c. Net
Net operating
operating income
income will
will decrease.
decrease.

McGraw-Hill/Irwin
Slide 67
Multiple Predetermined Overhead Rates

To this point, we have assumed that there is a single
predetermined overhead rate called a plantwide
overhead rate.
Large companies
often use multiple
predetermined
overhead rates.
May be more complex

but . . .
May be more accurate because

it reflects differences across
departments.
McGraw-Hill/Irwin
Slide 68
Job-Order Costing in Service Companies

Job-order costing is used in many different
types of service companies.

McGraw-Hill/Irwin
Slide 69
The Use of Information Technology

Technology plays an important part in many
job-order cost systems. When combined with
Electronic Data Interchange (EDI) or a web-based
programming language called Extensible Markup
Language (XML), bar coding eliminates the
inefficiencies and inaccuracies associated with
manual clerical processes.

McGraw-Hill/Irwin
Slide 70
Activity-based Job-order Costing

Appendix 8A
2012 McGraw-Hill Education (Asia)
(Appendix 8A)
Apply Job-order Costing in
Activity-based Costing
Environment.

McGraw-Hill/Irwin
Slide 72
Activity-based Job-order Costing: Example 1

McGraw-Hill/Irwin
Slide 73
Activity-based Job-order Costing: Example 2

McGraw-Hill/Irwin
Slide 74
End of Chapter 8

McGraw-Hill/Irwin
Slide 75

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Systems Design: Job-Order Costing

2012 McGraw-Hill Education (Asia)

McGraw-Hill Education (Asia)

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Garrison, Noreen, Brewer, Cheng & Yuen

McGraw-Hill Education (Asia)

Garrison, Noreen, Brewer, Cheng & Yuen

McGraw-Hill Education (Asia)

Garrison, Noreen, Brewer, Cheng & Yuen

Identify the documents

McGraw-Hill Education (Asia)

Garrison, Noreen, Brewer, Cheng & Yuen

Job-Order Costing An Overview

McGraw-Hill Education (Asia)

Garrison, Noreen, Brewer, Cheng & Yuen

Indirect Manufacturing Costs

McGraw-Hill Education (Asia)

Garrison, Noreen, Brewer, Cheng & Yuen

The Job Cost Sheet

McGraw-Hill Education (Asia)

Date Initiated 3-4-09

Garrison, Noreen, Brewer, Cheng & Yuen

Measuring Direct Materials Cost

Garrison, Noreen, Brewer, Cheng & Yuen

Measuring Direct Materials Cost

McGraw-Hill Education (Asia)

Garrison, Noreen, Brewer, Cheng & Yuen

Measuring Direct Labor Costs

McGraw-Hill Education (Asia)

Garrison, Noreen, Brewer, Cheng & Yuen

Job-Order Cost Accounting

McGraw-Hill Education (Asia)

Garrison, Noreen, Brewer, Cheng & Yuen

McGraw-Hill Education (Asia)

Garrison, Noreen, Brewer, Cheng & Yuen

Why Use an Allocation Base?

McGraw-Hill Education (Asia)

Garrison, Noreen, Brewer, Cheng & Yuen

Manufacturing Overhead Application

McGraw-Hill Education (Asia)

Garrison, Noreen, Brewer, Cheng & Yuen

The Need for a POHR

Actual overhead for the period is not

Garrison, Noreen, Brewer, Cheng & Yuen

Determining Predetermined Overhead

Garrison, Noreen, Brewer, Cheng & Yuen

Application of Manufacturing Overhead

Overhead applied = POHR Actual activity

McGraw-Hill Education (Asia)

Garrison, Noreen, Brewer, Cheng & Yuen

Overhead Application Rate