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FIGURE91PartialEquilibriumEffectsofanImportQuota.
Examples:
1. US restraints on Japanese cars exports in 1981.
2. US restraints on steel exports in 1982 that limited
imports to 20% of the US steel market.
VERs are less effective than quotas and exporters
tend to fill their quota with higher-quality and higher
priced units of the product over time.
As a rule, only major suppliers were involved,
leaving the door open for other nations to replace part
of the exports of the major suppliers and also from
transshipments through third countries.
B.
C. International Cartels
An international cartel is an organization of suppliers
of a commodity located in different nations that
agrees to restrict output and exports of the
commodity with the aim of maximizing profits.
Examples:
1. OPEC: a cartel of major oil countries which restricts
production and exports of oil.
2. International Air Transport Association: a cartel of
major airlines that set international fares and policies
Cartels are more successful with fewer members
producing an essential commodity with no close
substitutes.
D. Dumping
Definition: is the export of a commodity at below
cost or at least the sale of a commodity at a lower
price abroad than domestically.
Dumping is classified as either:
1) Persistent Dumping (or international price
discrimination): is the continuous tendency of a
domestic monopolist to maximize total profits by
selling the commodity at a higher price in the
domestic market (which is insulted by transportation
costs and trade barriers) than internationally (where
it must meet the competition of foreign producers).
E. Export Subsidies
Definition: they are direct payments (or the granting
of tax relief and subsidized loans) to the nations
exporters or potential exporters and/or lowinterest
loans to foreign buyers to stimulate the nations
exports.
Export subsidies can be regarded as a form of
dumping.
Although export subsidies are illegal by
international agreement, many nations provide them
in disguised (hidden) and not-so-disguised forms.
Examples:
o All major industrial nations give foreign buyers of the
nations export low-interest loans to finance the
purchase through agencies such as the US ExportImport Bank.
o The US extraterritorial income or Foreign Sales
Corporations provisions of the US tax code have
been used by US corporations to set up overseas
subsidiaries to enjoy partial exemption from US tax
laws on income earned from exporters.
Countervailing duties are often imposed on imports to
offset export subsidies by foreign governments.
FIGURE92PartialEquilibriumEffectofanExportSubsidy.