DOZIMETRIE

1. Tipuri de radiatii nucleare si caracteristici

2. Interactia radiatiei cu substanta

3. Actiunea biologica a radiatiilor

4. Detectori de radiatii

 TIPURI DE RADIATII NUCLEARE SI CARACTERISTICI

Dozimetria sau dozimetria radiatiilor nucleare este un capitol al metrologiei
radiatiilor nucleare care se ocupa cu masurarea dozei de radiatii nucleare.
Aplicatiile radionuclizilor se bazeaza in principal pe folosirea radiatiilor emise
in procesul dezintegrarii radioactive.
Radiatie-un fascicul de particule in miscare.
Termenul de particula, folosit aici in sensul cel mai general, cuprinde atat
fotonii (particule cu masa de repaus nula) cat si corpusculele (particule cu
masa de repaus diferita de zero).

Fasciculele de fotoni constituie radiatiile electromagnetice, iar fasciculele de
corpuscule (radiatiile alfa, deuteronii, electronii, protonii etc.) constituie
radiatii corpusculare.
Radiatiile nucleare cuprind o parte din radiatiile electromagnetice si anume
cele penetrante: radiatiile de franare, radiatiile Rontgen (sau X), radiatiile de
anihilare si radiatiile gamma.
Radiatiile corpusculare sunt formate din particule elementare (electroni,
mezoni, protoni, neutroni etc) si din nuclee de atomi (deuteroni, helioni etc.)
in miscare.
Caracteristica principala a radiatiilor nucleare este faptul ca, prin
interactiunea cu substanta ele produc, direct sau indirect, ionizarea acesteia.

Radiatiile alfa
Radiatiile alfa, fiind nuclee de heliu, au masa de repaus mare, ceea
ce le permite sa se deplaseze rectiliniu si cu parcurs mic. In functie
de energie, parcursul in aer al radiatiilor alfa este cuprins intre 2 si 10
cm, iar energiile emise de acestea sunt cuprinse in intervalul 29
MeV.
Intr-un camp magnetic, radiatiile alfa emise de o substanta
radioactiva sunt deviate sub forma unui fascicul ingust, ceea ce
inseamna ca ele practic sunt, emise cu aceeasi energie.
Acest tip de radiatii provoaca o puternica ionizare specifica. In medie,
o particula cu energia de 2 MeV produce in aer 60 000 perechi de
ioni pe cm.
Radiatiile beta
Radiatiile beta sunt compuse din particule cu sarcina electrica
negativa sau pozitiva.
In literatura sunt cunoscute sub numele de radiatii beta minus
(negatroni), respectiv radiatii beta plus (pozitroni). Aceste particule
au o masa de repaus de peste 7300 ori mai mica decat a particulelor
alfa.

Intr-un camp magnetic, radiatiile beta emise de o substanta

radioactiva sunt deviate sub forma unui fascicul larg, distributia
energiilor fiind continua, de la valori foarte mici (aproape zero)
pana la o valoare maxima, bine determinata. Aceasta este numita
limita superioara a spectrului continuu beta, iar energia medie a
unui spectru de radiatii beta emis de o anumita substanta
radioactiva, reprezinta aproximativ 40% din valoarea acesteia.
Spectrul energetic continuu al radiatiilor beta determina un parcurs
care variaza in limite foarte largi. Parcursul lor in aer este de la
cativa mm pana la cativa m si chiar zeci de metri.
Radiatiile gamma si Rontgen
Radiatiile gamma si Rontgen sunt radiatii de natura
electromagnetica care se caracterizeaza printr-un parcurs foarte
mare si o ionizare specifica mica. In functie de energia lor, pot
strabate in aer un parcurs cuprins intre metri si sute de metri.
Cele doua tipuri de radiatii electromagnetice nu se diferentiaza prin
natura. Radiatiile gamma au in general o energie mai mare implicit
o lungime de unda mai mica fata de radiatiile Rontgen si o putere
mai mare de patrundere printr-un mediu material.

Neutronii
Neutronii sunt particule lipsite de sarcina electrica, cu masa de repaus
egala cu a protonilor (nuclee de hidrogen) mai mica de patru ori decat
a radiatiilor alfa si aproape de 2 000 ori mai mare decat a radiatiilor
beta. Parcursul lor printr-un mediu material este in forma de zig-zag
datorita interactiunii lor cu nucleele si electronii atomilor acestuia.
Materialele usoare (parafina, grafit, apa, apa grea, beriliu metalic, oxid
de beriliu etc.) sunt material care incetinesc neutronii si se numesc
moderatori.
Borul si cadmiul absoarbe neutronii si materialele grele ii incetinesc
mult mai putin.
Functie de energia lor, neutronii sunt calasificati astfel:
- neutroni termici
cu energie < 1eV
- neutroni de rezonanta
cu energie 100 eV 1000 eV
- neutroni intermediari (epitermici)
cu energie 103 eV 106 eV
- neutroni rapizi cu energie > 106 eV
INTERACTIA RADIATIILOR CU SUBSTANTA
Procesul de interactiune a radiatiilor cu substanta este important in
cunoasterea efectului acestora asupra detectorilor cat si a
organismului.
Procesele de interactiune ale radiatiilor gamma
Pentru energiile pe care le au radiatiile gamma emise de surse
radioactive uzuale, principalele procese de interactiune sunt:

Efectul fotoelectric - are loc la intalnirea fotonului gamma incident cu

un electron de pe una din paturile electronice ale atomului substantei
cu care interactioneaza, process prin care fotonul cedeaza electronului
intreaga sa energie , acesta din urma fiind smuls din atom.
Efectul Compton - are loc la intalnirea fotonului gamma incident de
energie h, cu un electron liber sau usor legat.
Formarea de perechi (efectul de materializare electron-pozitron)
apare ca urmare a interactiunii dintre radiatia gama sau Rontgen cu o
energie mai mare de 1.022 MeV si campul nucleului.
Atenuarea radiatiilor Rontgen si gamma
La trecerea radiatiilor gama printr-o substanta, acestea sunt atenuate
treptat, ca urmare a proceselor de interactiune care au loc. Pentru
grosimi mari strabatute, intensitatea lor scade mult, atenuarea fiind
exponentiala ca si in cazul radiatiilor beta. In acest caz insa se poate
vorbi de o valoare determinata a parcursului lor maxim; atenuarea
creste pentru materialele cu densitate mare.
Procesele de interactiune ale neutronilor
Neutronii interactioneaza numai cu nucleele atomilor. Ei nu au sarcina
electrica si nu este necesar sa aiba o energie cinetica ridicata pentru a
strabate campul coulumbian al atomului pentru a ajunge la nucleu. Cu
nucleul interactiona si neutronii cu energii foarte joase. Probabilitatea
de patrundere a neutronilor in nucleu este ridicata, in special cei cu

La trecerea neutronilor prin materie sunt posibile trei tipuri de

interactiuni: imprastiere elastica, imprastiere neelastica si absorbtie
(captura neutronica).
Interactia radiatiilor alfa cu substanta
La trecerea radiatiilor alfa printr-o substanta, ele pot suferi trei tipuri
de interactiuni: ciocnire, franare in camp electric si captura de catre
nucleu. Ciocnirea este tipul de interactiune care se produce cu
probabilitatea cea mai mare. In urma ciocnirii unei particule alfa in
miscare cu un atom, se poate produce o excitare a acestuia ca urmare
a ridicarii unui electron pe un nivel de energie superior. Excitarea are
loc ca urmare a actiunii campului electric creat de particula alfa
respectiva asupra electronilor orbitali. La revenirea electronilor pe
nivelele fundamentale, atomii vor emite radiatii electromagnetice,
unele in spectrul vizibil. Prin interactiuni succesive, radiatia alfa isi
pierde energia sa si se incetineste pana cand energia ei scade sub o
anumita limita la care nu mai poate produce ionizari. In acest stadiu,
particulele alfa capteaza cate doi electroni de la atomii mediului
strabatut si se transforma in atomi de heliu.

Atenuarea fasciculului de radiatii

In urma proceselor de interactiune, particulele alfa isi pierd treptat
energia si numai in final sunt imprastiate. Numarul de particule dintr-un
fascicul incident nu scade pe masura ce acestea strabat o substanta
oarecare. La o anumita grosime a materialului ele sunt total absorbite,
procesul numindu-se atenuare cu parcurs.
Interactia radiatiilor beta cu substanta
Mecanismul interactiunilor este asemanator celui intalnit in cazul
radiatiilor alfa. Exista deosebirea ca, pentru radiatiile beta minus,
fortele din atomii materialelor care actioneaza aupra electronilor sunt
de respingere. Spectrul energetic al radiatiei de franare este continuu;
energia maxima a limitei superioare a spectrului radiatiei Rontgen de
franare este socotita egala cu energia maxima a radiatiei beta
incidenta.
Atenuarea fasciculului de radiatii
Fascicolul de radiatii beta isi pierde energia fie interactionand cu
electronii atomilor mediului strabatut, fie interactionand cu nucleul. La
fiecare ciocnire, radiatia beta sufera mari fluctuatii statice in ceea ce
priveste pierderea de energie.

In general se foloseste parcursul masic maxim Rm max=Rm (densitatea materialului, g/cm3). Calcularea parcursului maxim, pentru
o anumita substanta se face impartind valoarea parcursului masic
maxim la densitatea absorbantului [g/cm3]. In practica, valorile
parcursului maxim al radiatiilor beta in aluminiu functie de energia
radiatiilor si se recomanda a fi citit din diagrama.
Actiunea biologica a radiatiilor
La interactiunile radiatiilor ionizante cu substanta vie au loc aceleasi
procese ca si la interactiunea cu materia fara viata, diferenta fiind
aceea ca efectele finale la care conduc aceste interactiuni sunt efecte
biologice.
Radiatiile ionizante pot actiona asupra organismului in trei moduri:
i)actiune directa;
ii) actiune indirecta; iii) actiune de la distanta.
In urma actiunii directe a radiatiilor asupra organismului sunt lezate
macromoleculele de importanta vitala (proteine, acizi nucleici) care
sufera transformari datorita ionizarii sau excitarii directe.

Mediul principal in care se desfasoara procesele biologice fiind apa,

efectele apar ca rezultat al ionizarii acesteia prin aparitia produsilor de
descompunere (ioni sau radicali) care actioneaza ca oxidanti si
reducatori asupra unor componente celulare esentiale. Astfel este
perturbata buna desfasurare a proceselor biologice din aceste celule.
Marimi si unitati folosite pentru evaluarea efectelor biologice
Diversitatea tipurilor de radiatii a impus definirea unui sistem de
masurare a efectelor biologice ale radiatiilor cu marimi corespunzatoare
intregului domeniu si unitati de masurare adecvate. A fost introdusa
notiunea de factor de calitate (FC) pentru a putea explica faptul ca
unele radiatii produc efecte mai daunatoare decat altele.
Doza absorbita D reprezinta raportul dintre W si m, in care W este
energia medie comunicata de radiatiile nucleare unei cantitati de
materie de masa m.
Unitatea SI pentru doza absorbita este gray (Gy), care corespunde unei
energii cedate de un joule pe Kg (1Gy=1JKg-1). Se mai mentine
temporar si unitatea speciala denumita rad (rontgen absorbed dose)
1rad=10-2Gy=10-2 JKg-1 sau 1rad=100 erg-1
Relatia pentru doza absorbita este de forma:
D= W/ m [Gy] sau [rad]

Debitul dozei absorbite, reprezinta variatia dozei absorbite, D, in

intervalul de timp t si are ca unitate de masura Gy sau rad cu
multiplii sau submultiplii lor, raportata la unitatea de timp: Gy/s;
Gy/min; Gy/h sau rad/s; rad/min; rad/h etc.
=D/t
[Gyh-1] sau [radh-1]
Echivalentul dozei, H este produsul a trei termeni: D, FC si N, intrun punct considerat al tesutului unde D este doza absorbita, FC este
factorul de calitate si N este produsul tuturor celorlalti factori
modificatori intre care si factorul de distributie;
N se considera 1. Pentru factorul de calitate, orientativ se dau
urmatoarele valori:
1-pentru radiatii rontgen, radiatiile gama si electroni;
10-pentru neutroni, protoni si particulele cu sarcina unica care au o
masa de repaus superioara unitatii de masa atomica;
20-pentru particulele alfa si particulele cu sarcini multiple.
Unitatea SI a echivalentului dozei, H, se numeste Sievert (Sv),
1Sv=1JKg-1.
1rem=10-2 Sv; 1Sv=10-2JKg-1 sau 1 rem=100 erg/gtesut
Relatia pentru echivalentul dozei este:
H=D(FC) N [Sv] sau [rem]


Debitul
echivalentului dozei, , reprezinta variatia echivalentului
dozei, H, in intervalul de timp, t si se masoara in unitati adecvate,
derivate din Sv sau rem (multipli si submultipli) raportati la unitatea de
timp considerate: Sv/s; Sv/min; Sv/h; rem/s; rem/min; rem/h etc.
=
[Svh-1]
[remh-1]
Din punct de vedere al energiei cedate, se poate considera ca
exprimarea iradierii in unitatile rontgen, rad sau rem sunt aproximativ
echivalente.
Efectele biologice sunt efecte somatice si efecte genetice.
Efecte somatice (asupra organismului)- se manifesta dupa un interval
mai scurt: i) efecte imediate cum sunt efecte localizate-eritem, epilare,
arsuri ale pielii etc.; ii) efecte care apar dupa intervale mai lungi (ani
sau zeci de ani), efecte tardive.

Efecte genetice (asupra urmasilor)- cele care reclama o diminuare a

calitatilor urmasilor si apar pana la 3 sau 4 generatii. Numarul
mutatiilor genetice depinde numai de doza totala absorbita la nivelul
gonadelor si nu de debitul dozei.
In functie de modul de expunere, respective de repartizare a iradierilor,
distingem:
i) iradiere profesionala;
ii) iradierea populatiei.
Iradierile profesionale sunt atunci cand rezulta din activitati legate
direct de lucrul cu surse de radiatii nucleare (ex.-personalul unitatilor
nucleare este expus profesional actiunii radiatiilor ionizante).
Limita anuala a echivalentului dozei efectiv pentru lucratori este de
20mSv (2 rem).
Iradierile populatiei sunt atunci cand nu rezulta direct din efectuarea
unor lucrari cu substante radioactive sau surse de radiatii ionizante.
Limita anuala a echivalentului dozei efectiv pentru persoanele din
public este de 1mSv (0.1 rem).

Limita dozei admisa pentru organism, organ sau tesut oarecare trebuie
inteleasa ca doza primita atat prin iradierile externe pe durata orelor de
lucru cat si prin iradierile interne.
In Normele Republicane de Securitate Radiologica (NSR) sunt date atat
activitatile maxim admise in organul critic cat si concentratiile maxim
admise (CMA) in aer si apa pentru fiecare radionuclid in parte.
Detectarea si masurarea radiatiilor
Detectorii de radiatii se bazeaza in special pe efectele produse de
radiatii la interactiunea lor cu substanta.
Detectori de radiatii
Detectorii utilizati in mod curent in activitatile nucleare:
-detectori bazati pe ionizarea gazelor si conectarea ionilor (camerele de
ionizare, contorii proportionali, contorii Geiger-Muler);
-detectori bazati pe ionizarea cristalelor (contori cu cristal);
-detectori la baza carora sta fenomenul de impresionare a emulsiilor
fotografice (emulsiile nucleare, filmele dozimetrice etc.);
-detectori bazati pe fenomenul de luminiscenta (contorii cu scintilatie);
-detectori bazati pe fenomenele de termoluminiscenta si
fotoluminiscenta (detectori termoluminiscenti).

Dozimetrul Rontgen-gama VA-J-15A este un aparat portabil destinat

masuratorilor de doze si debite de doze date de radiatiile Rontgen si
gama cu un spectru larg de energie 20 KeV1,2 MeV ca si a detectarii
calitative a radiatiilor beta emise de diferiti radionuclizi.
Aparatul are ca detector o camera de ionizare cu aer (mediul in care se
face masuratoarea). Detectorul este cuplat la partea principala a
aparatului. Domeniul de masurare este larg, impartit in doua domenii.
Fiecare domeniu are cate 6 scale atat pentru debitul dozei cat si pentru
doza integrata. Eroarea de masurare este 15%.

Dozimetrul Rontgen-gama VA-J-15A

cuplarea sondeiprin cablu de legatura

1-stecherul de legatura cu aparatul principal

2-instrumentul de masurat
3-surubul pentru pozitionarea punctului zero mecanic
4-fixatorul punctului zero electric
5-salterul, domeniul de masurare fin
6-cureaua de purtare
7-cuplajul pentru inscriptor
8- lacasul bateriilor
9- calul de legatura
10-stecherul capului de masurare
11- salterul domeniul de masurare grosier
12-butonul pentru sursa de radiatii de control
13- camera
14-capacul de protectie al camerei

Gamarad DL-7- este destinat masuratorilor de

debite ale expunerii externe in campuri de radiatii
rontgen si gama in scopul radioprotectiei
personalului cu expunere profesionala la radiatii
din unitatile radiologice fig 4.7, pg 71
El este utilizat in situatii specific ca:
i) supraveghere a zonelor de radiatii (monitor);
ii) masuratori de rutina ale debitelor expunerii;
iii)localizarea surselor de radiatii;
iv)sesizarea cazurilor de contaminare.

Gamarad DL-7

Aparatura pentru supravegherea dozimetrica individuala

Printre sistemele de dozimetrie individuala se practica supravegherea cu:
1. camere de ionizare (stilodozimetre);
2. fotodozimetre;
3. dozimetre TL
Camera de ionizare (stilodozimetru)- este destinat controlului dozimetric
individual la iradierea cu radiatii Rontgen, gama si beta dure (beta moi fiind oprite
de peretii stiloului). Exista si stilodozimetre cu electroscop (cu fir), acestea fiind
prevazute cu sistem optic ce permite citirea direct, in milirontgen, expunerea in
intervalul de timp cat a fost expus radiatiei.
Pentru stilodozimetre este necesara si instalatia de incarcare, utilizata inainte de
a fi purtat. Periodic este necesara etalonarea si cu aceasta ocazie se verifica si
autodescarcarea stilodozimetrelor. La terminarea lucrului, stilodozimetrele sunt
depozitate in loc ferit de actiunea radiatiilor.

Dozimetrul individual cu film (fotodozimetru)

Acesta se compune din film dozimetric si caseta cu filtre metalice in care se
inchide filmul. Este destinat masurarii dozelor de radiatii gama, Rontgen,
beta si neutroni termici incasate pe timpul lucrului de persoana purtatoare.
Filmul dozimetric are doua pelicule de sensibilitati diferite pentru acoperirea
unui interval de masurare.
Parametrii dozimetrici ce caracterizeaza filmul:
- este un dozimetru integrator;
- are interval larg de masurare (0.17 mSv-1Sv);
- raspunsul dozimetric functie de energia radiatiilor ionizante este mare,
ceea ce impune utilizarea de filtre atenuatoare si discriminatoare de
energie;
-precizia de masurare este 30%;
-imaginea fotografica se pastreaza timp indelungat

Dozimetrul individual cu detectoare termoluminiscente (dozimetru TL)

Acesta se compune din caseta cu filtre metalice asezate in lacasuri amenajate
in care se pun detectoare termoluminiscente. Este destinat masurarii dozelor
de radiatii gama, Rontgen, beta si neutroni termici incasate pe timpul lucrului
de persoana purtatoare.
Detectoarele termoluminiscente sunt de diferite forme (pudra, cips, tablete
etc.) cu sensibilitate mare pentru acoperirea unui interval larg de masurare.
Parametrii dozimetrici ce caracterizeaza dozimetrul TL:
- este un dozimetru integrator;
- are interval larg de masurare (0.10 mSv-1Sv);
- raspunsul dozimetric functie de energia radiatiilor ionizante este neglijabila.
- eroarea de masurare este 10%;
- citirea detectoarelor termoluminiscente este rapida;
- se pot refolosi dupa regenerare pana la 80 ori.

DOSIMETRY

1.
2.
3.
4.

Types of nuclear radiation and characteristics

Interaction between radiation and substance
Biological effect of radiaton
Radiation Detectors

Types of nuclear radiation and characteristics

Nuclear radiation dosimetry and dosimetry metrology is a chapter
dealing with nuclear radiation nuclear radiation dose measurement.
Dosimetry or radiation dosimetry is a part of nuclear radiation wich
treats the measurement of radiation doses.
Radionuclide applications are mainly based on the use of radiation
emitted in radioactive decay process.
The term of particle is used here in the most general sense,
including both photons (particles with zero rest mass) and corpuscles
(particles with nonzero rest mass).
Photon beams is electromagnetic radiation and beams corpuscles
(alpha, deuterons, electrons, protons etc..) are corpuscular radiations.
Electromagnetic radiation is made up of photon beams and beams
corpuscles (alpha, deuteronis, electrons, protons, etc..) constitutes
corpuscular radiations.
Nuclear radiation includes some of the electromagnetic radiations,
namely the penetrating electromagnetic radiations are: braking
radiation, Rontgen rays (or X) annihilation and gamma radiations.
Corpuscular radiations are made up of elementary particles
(electrons, mesons, protons, neutrons, etc.) and the moving nuclei of
atoms (deuteron, helion etc.).

Alpha radiation
Alpha radiation, being helium nuclei, have a big rest mass,( the helium
nuclei have large rest mass,) allowing them to move straight and on a
short distance (go small). Depending on the energy of alpha radiation,
the distance traveled in during air is between 2 and 10 cm, and the
energy emitted is between 2 and 9 MeV.
In a magnetic field, alpha radiation emitted by a radioactive substance
are diverted as a narrow beam, which means that they basically are
emitted with the same energy.
This type of radiation causes a strong specific ionization. On average, a
particle with the energy of 2 MeV produces, in air, 60.000 pairs of ions
per cm.
Beta radiation
Beta rays are composed of particles with negative or positive electrical
charge.
In literature they are known as beta minus radiation (negatrons) and
beta plus radiation (positrons). These particles have a rest mass over
7300 times smaller than alpha particles.

In a magnetic field, beta radiation emitted by a radioactive substance

are deflected in the form of a broad beam and energy distribution is
continuous from very small values (close to zero) to a maximum value
well determined. This is called the upper limit of the continuous beta
spectrum and average energy of a beta radiation spectrum emitted by a
radioactive substance, represents approximately 40% of its value.
Continuous energy spectrum of beta radiation causes a period which in
large limits.
The distance traveled in air is between a few millimeters to several
meters and even tens of meters.
Gamma and Rontgen radiation
Rontgen rays and gamma rays are electromagnetic in nature and are
characterized by a great distance traveled and a small specific
ionization. Depending on their energy can cross, in air, a distance of
meters and hundreds of meters.
The two types of electromagnetic radiation are not different in nature.
Gamma rays generally have a higher energy implying a lower
wavelength than the Rontgen rays and more power to penetrate
through a material medium.

Neutrons
Neutrons are particles without an electrical charge, with a rest mass
equal to that of protons (hydrogen nuclei), four times smaller than that of
alpha radiation and almost 2000 times larger than beta radiation. Their
course through a material medium is shaped in a zigzag because of their
interaction with nuclei and electrons of atoms. Lightweight materials
(wax, graphite, water, heavy water, beryllium metal, beryllium oxide etc.)
are materials which slow down the neutrons and are called moderators.
Boron and cadmium absorbs neutrons and heavy materials slow them
down less.
Depending on their energy neutrons are classified as:
-

Thermal neutrons with energy <1eV

Resonance neutrons with energy 100 eV to 1000 eV
Intermediate neutrons (epithermal) with energy 103 eV 106 eV
Fast neutrons with energy> 106 eV

RADIATION INTERACTION WITH SUBSTANCE

The interaction of radiation with substance is important in knowing their
effect on detectors and on the body .
Processes of interaction of gamma radiation
For the energies of gamma rays emitted by common radioactive sources,
the main interaction processes are:
a) the photoelectric effect
b) Compton effect
c) formation of electron pairs
Photoelectric effect when a gamma photon meets and electron of an
atom with which it interacts, the photon gives up all its energy and the
electron is plucked away from the atom.
Compton effect - happens when a gamma photon with h energy meets
a free electron or a slightly connected one.
Formation of pairs (electron-positron materialization effect) apears
from the interaction of gamma rays or Rontgen with an energy greater
than 1.022 MeV and core field??? .
Rontgen rays and gamma attenuation
When passing through a substance, the gamma rays are gradually
weakened as a result of the interaction processes. The attenuation is
exponential as for beta radiation and, for thick layers the intensity drops
a lot. But in this case we can speak of a determined travel distance ;

Interaction processes of neutrons

Neutrons interact only with nuclei. They have no electrical charge and do
not require a high kinetic energy to cross the coulombian field and to
reach the nucleus . Low energy neutrons can also interact with the
nuclei . The probability of neutrons penetrating in the nucleus is high,
particularly those with low kinetic energy (thermal neutrons).
When passing through matter, neutrons have three possible interactions:
elastic scattering, inelastic scattering and absorption (neutron capture).
Alpha radiation interaction with substance
When passing through a substance, alpha radiation can suffer three types
of interaction: collision, slowing down in an electric field and capture by
the nucleus. The clash is the interaction with the highest probability .
Alpha particles in a collision with a moving atom can produce its
excitation due by lifting an electron to a higher energy level. Excitation
occurs as an effect of the electric field produced by the alpha particle on
the orbital electrons . When the electrons return to fundamental levels,
the atoms emit electromagnetic radiation, some in the visible spectrum.
Through successive interactions, alpha radiation loses its energy and
slows down until its energy falls below a certain limit after which it can
not longer produce ionization. At this stage, alpha particles capture two
electrons from atoms and turn into helium atoms.

Radiation beam mitigation

After the interaction process, alpha particles gradually lose energy and
only at the end, they are scattered. The number of particles in an incident
beam does not decrease as they travel through a certain substance. After
a certain travel distance through the material they are totally absorbed,
the process being called the mitigation of course.
The interaction of Beta radiation with substance
The interaction mechanism is similar to that of alpha radiation. The
difference is that, for beta minus radiation, the forces of atoms acting on
electrons are of repulsion. The energy spectrum of the braking radiation is
continuous; Rontgen radiations braking specter has a maximum energy,
considered the upper limit, equal to the maximum energy of the incident
beta radiation.
Radiation beam attenuation
Beta radiation beam loses energy by interacting with electrons and also
nuclei of the atoms from the environment it corsses. After each collision,
beta radiation has a great static fluctuation regarding energy loss.

Generally, the maximum mass travel, Rmax = Rm (- material density,

[g/cm3]), is used. To calculate the maximum travel distance, for a given
substance, the maximum mass travel is divided to the absorbants
denisity [g/cm3]. In reality, the maximum travel distance of beta
radiation in aluminum depends on the radiation energy and is
recommended to be read from the diagram.
Biological action of radiation
Just as with matter, radiation interacts with living substance in the same
way, only that the effects are biological.
Ionizing radiation can affect the body in three ways: i) direct action; ii)
indirect action;
iii) action from a distance.
Following the direct action of radiation on the body macromolecules of
vital importance are damaged (proteins, nucleic acids) which are
processed due to direct ionization or excitation.
The main environment in which biological process occur is water. The
effects appear as a result of ionization and that leads to the formation of
ions and radicals, which act as ?redox? On essential cellullar components.

Quantities and units used to evaluate the biological effects

The diversity of radiation led to the creation of a system used to
measure the biological effects of radiation corresponding to all scales
and units. The notion of quality factor (QF) was introduced in order to
explain that some radiation are more harmful than others.
Absorbed dose D is the ratio between W and m, where W is the
mean energy of nuclear radiation transmitted to a mass, m.
The SI unit for the absorbed dose is the gray (Gy), which corresponds
to an energy of one joule per kilogram transferred (1Gy = 1J kg -1).
Another unit sometimes used is the rad (Rontgen absorbed dose).
1rad = 10-2GY = 2.10 J kg-1 or 1rad = 100 erg g-1
The relative absorbed dose is:
D = W / m [Gy] or [rad]

The rate of dose absorbtion, , is defined as the variation of the

absorbed dose, D, in the time interval t and its measured in Gy,
multiples or submultiples divided by unit of time: Gy /s, Gy /min, Gy /h
or rad /s, rad /min, rad / h etc.
= Dd / Dt [Gy h-1] or [rad h-1]
The dose equivalent, H, is the product of three terms: D, QF and N, in
a point considered of tissue volume, where D is the absorbed dose, QF
is the quality factor and N is the product of all other modifying factors
among which if distribution factor;
N is considered 1. Concerning the quality factor, the following guidance
values are given:
1-for Rontgen rays, gamma rays and electrons;
10-for neutrons, protons and particles with a single charge rest mass
atomic mass unit higher;
20-for alpha particles and particles with multiple tasks.
The SI unit of dose equivalent, H, is called the Sievert (Sv), 1Sv = 1J kg 1
.
1rem = 2 10-1 Sv; 1Sv = 10-2J kg-1 or 1 rem = 100 erg / g tissue
The formula of dose equivalent is:
H = D (CF) N [Sv] or [rem]

The equivalent dose rate , , represents the equivalent dose variation,

H, in time, t and is measured in appropriate units derived from Sv or
rem (multiples and submultiples) per unit of time: Sv / s; Sv / min; Sv / h;
rem /s; rem / min; rem / h etc.
= / [Sv h-1] [rem h-1]
In terms of energy transferred, the irradiation expressed in Rontgen, rad
or rem are approximately equivalent.
Biological effects are somatic and genetic.
Somatic effects (on the body) - occur after a shorter interval: i)
immediate effects such as localized effects-erythema, epilation, skin
burns and so on, ii) effects that occur after longer intervals (years or
decades) , late effects.
Genetic effects (on the descendants) are those that reduce reduction
in offspring qualities and remain up to 3 or 4 generations. The number of
gene mutations depends only on the total dose absorbed by the gonads
and not the dose rate.
Depending on the exposure, respectively on the distribution of irradiation,
we can distinguish:
i)Professional irradiation;
ii) Population irradiation.

Professional irradiation is when it results from activities directly related

to manipulation of nuclear radiation sources (eg: the personnel of
nuclear units is occupationally exposed to the action of ionizing
radiation.
The annual limit of effective dose equivalent for workers is 20mSv (2
rem).
Population irradiation is when people are not directly irradiated as a
result from carrying out work with radioactive substances or ionizing
radiation sources.
The annual limit of effective dose equivalent for members of the
public is 1mSv (0.1 rem).
The allowable dose limit for the body, any organ or tissue is to be
understood as both the external radiation dose received during office
hours and as internal irradiation.
In the Republican Radiological Safety Norms (NSR) are given both the
maximum permissible activities in the critical organ and maximum
permissible concentrations (MPC) in air and water for each
radionuclide separately.

Radiation detection and measurement

Radiation detectors are based mainly on the effects of radiation in their
interaction with substance.
Radiation Detectors
Detectors currently used in nuclear activities:
- detectors based on the ionization gas the connection of ions (ionization
chambers, proportional counters, Geiger counters, Muler);
- detectors based on the ionization of crystals (crystal counters);
- detectors based on the phenomenon of photographic emulsions
(nuclear emulsions, dosimetic films etc.).
- detectors based on the phenomenon of luminescence (scintillation
counters);
- detectors based on the phenomenon of thermoluminescence and
photoluminescence (thermoluminescent detectors)

Rontgen-gamma dosimeter , VA-J-15A, is a portable device

used to measure doses and dose flow data given by Rontgen and
gamma rays with a wide spectrum of energy: 20 keV ... 1.2 MeV
and also the qualitative detection of beta radiation emitted by
different radionuclides ???? Ce vrei sa zici????.
The device uses as a detector an air ionization chamber (the
environment in which the measurements are made). The detector
is connected to the main unit. Measuring spectrum is wide, divided
into two areas. Each domain has 6 scales for both dose rate and
the integrated dose. The measurement error is 15%.

1-stecherul de legatura cu aparatul principal

2-instrumentul de masurat
3-surubul pentru pozitionarea punctului zero mecanic
4-fixatorul punctului zero electric
5-salterul, domeniul de masurare fin
6-cureaua de purtare
7-cuplajul pentru inscriptor
8- lacasul bateriilor
9- calul de legatura
10-stecherul capului de masurare
11- salterul domeniul de masurare grosier
12-butonul pentru sursa de radiatii de control
13- camera
14-capacul de protectie al camerei

DL-7-Gamarad, is used to measure the flow of external

exposure in fields of gamma and Rontgenn radiation of the
staff with occupational exposure for radiation protection
purposes Figure 4.7, pg 71
It is used in specific situations such as:
i) monitoring radiation areas (monitor);
ii) Routine measurements of flow exposure;
iii) location of radiation sources;
iv) finding cases of contamination.

Equipment for monitoring individual dosimetry

Among individual dosimetry systems practiced with supervision:
1. ionisation chambers (pen dosimeters);

2. fotodosimeters;
3. TL dosimeters
Ionization chamber (pen dosimeter) - is designed to control individual dosimetric
Rontgen ray irradiation, gamma and hard beta (beta soft walls being stopped by
pen). There pen dosimeters the electroscope (wired), which is equipped with an
optical system that allows direct reading in milirontgens, exposure time was
exposed as radiation.
For pen dosimeters is required and loading gear, used before being worn.
Periodic calibration is necessary, on this occasion to check and tipping of the
pen dosimeters. After work, the pen dosimeters are stored in a place
inaccessible to the action of radiation.

Individual dosimetrical film (fotodosimeter)

It consists of dosimetrical film and metal filter box that closes the
film. Is intended to measure radiation dose range, Rontgen, beta
and thermal neutrons collected in person whilst carrying.
Dosimetrical film has two different sensitivities to cover a
measuring range.
Dosimetrical parameters characterizing the film:
- Is an integrator dosimeter;
- Has a wide measurement range (0.17 mSv-1Sv);
- Dosimetrical response by ionizing radiation energy is high,
requiring the use of filters and attenuators discriminatory power;
-measurement precision is 30%;
-photographic image is preserved for a long time

Individual dosimeter wich

thermoluminescent detectors (TL dosimeter)
It consists of metal filter box placed in places arranged to be placed
thermoluminescent detectors. Is intended to measure radiation dose range,
Rontgen, beta and thermal neutrons collected in person whilst carrying.
Thermoluminescent detectors come in different forms (powder, potato chips,
tablets etc.) High-sensitivity covering a wide range of measurement.
TL dosimeter dosimetry parameters characterizing:
- Is an integrator dosimeter;
- Has a wide measurement range (0.10 mSv-1Sv);
- Dosimetric response by ionizing radiation energy is negligible.
- Measurement error is 10%;
- Reading thermoluminescent detectors is fast;
- Can be reused after regeneration up to 80 times.