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chemicals in catalysis
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ROLL NO: 14412,14MI520,14705

H2SO4

Its color vary from colorless to slightly yellow viscous liquid.

Molecular weight is 98.079 g/mol.

It is pungent ethereal.

Sulfuric acid is adiprotic acidand shows different properties depending

upon its concentration.

It is highly reactive in nature.

Different grades of H2SO4

Mass fraction
H2SO4
10%

Density
(kg/L)
1.07

Concentration
(mol/L)
~1

Common name
dilute sulfuric acid
battery acid
(used in
leadacid batteries)

2932%

1.251.28

4.25

6270%

1.521.60

9.611.5

chamber acid
fertilizer acid

7880%

1.701.73

13.514

tower acid
Glover acid

98%

1.84

~18

concentrated sulfuric
acid

Chemical properties of H2SO4

1.

Dehydrating property: it is excellent dehydrating agent like

removing water from other compounds . In thelaboratory, this is often
demonstrated by mixingtable sugar(sucrose) into sulfuric acid. The
sugar changes from white to dark brown and then to black as carbon
is formed. A rigid column of black, porous carbon will emerge as well.

2.

Acid Base property: As an acid, sulfuric acid reacts with mostbases

to give the corresponding sulfate.

CuO (s) +H2SO4(aq) CuSO4(aq) +H2O(l)

Chemical properties
4. Reactions with metals and strong oxidizing property:It

attacks
reactive metals (metals at positions abovecopperin the
reactivity series)suchasiron, aluminium,zinc,manganese,
magnesiumandnickel.
Fe (s) +H2SO4(aq) H2(g) +FeSO4(aq)
Concentrated H2SO4 is good oxidising agent.
5. Reaction with non metals:Hot

concentrated sulfuric acid oxidizes

non-metals such ascarbon[23](as bituminous coal) andsulfur.
C + 2 H2SO4 CO2+ 2 SO2+ 2 H2O

Uses of H2SO4 as a catalyst

1.It is the usual acid catalyst for the conversion ofcyclohexanone oxime
tocaprolactam, used for makingnylon.
2.It is used for makinghydrochloric acidfromsaltvia the
Mannheim process.
3.MuchH2SO4is used inpetroleumrefining, for example as a catalyst for
the reaction ofisobutanewithisobutyleneto giveisooctane, a compound
that raises theoctane ratingofgasoline(petrol).
4.Sulfuric acid is also often used as a dehydrating or oxidising agent in
industrial reactions, such as the dehydration of various sugars to form
solid carbon.

Vanadium pentaoxide

It is brown/yellow solid.

Because of its highoxidationstate it is both anamphotericoxide and

anoxidizing agent.

being principal precursor to alloys of vanadium and is a widely used

industrial catalyst.

Chemical properties

Acid base reactions

Redox reaction

Chemical properties of V2O5

Acid base reactions :V2O5it is anamphotericoxide. Thus V2O5reacts

with strong non-reducing acids to form solutions containing the pale
yellow salts containing dioxovanadium(V) centers.
V2O5+ 2 HNO3 2 VO2(NO3) + H2O

Redox reactions:V2O5is easily reduced in acidic media to the stable

vanadium(IV) species, the bluevanadyl ion(VO(H2O)52+.
V2O5+ 6HCl + 7H2O 2[VO(H2O)5]2++ 4Cl+ Cl2

Use of V2O5
Sulphuric acid production
Vanadium(V) oxide serves the crucial purpose ofcatalysingthe mildly
exothermicoxidationof sulphur dioxide tosulphur trioxideby air in the
contact process:
2 SO2+ O2 2 SO3
The reaction is performed between 400 and 620C; below 400C the V 2O5is
inactive as a catalyst, and above 620C it begins to break down.
Maleic anhydride production by V2O5. it is used for production of polyester
resin.
C4H10+ 4 O2 C2H2(CO)2O + 8 H2O

Potassium oxide K2O

Potassium oxide is an ioniccompoundofpotassiumandoxygen. This

pale yellow solid, the simplest oxide of potassium, is a rarely
encountered, highly reactive compound. Some materials of commerce,
such as fertilizers and cements, are assayed assuming the percent
composition that would be equivalent to K2O.

Production of potassium oxide Potassium oxide is produced from the

reaction of oxygen and potassium; this reaction affords potassium oxide,
K2O. Treatment of the peroxide with potassium produces the oxide.
K2O2+ 2 K 2 K2O

Properties and reactions

K2O crystallises in the antifluorite structure. In this motif the positions of
theanionsandcationsare reversed relative to their positions inCaF2, with
potassium ions coordinated to 4 oxide ions and oxide ions coordinated to 8
potassium.[6][7]K2O is a basic oxide and reacts with water violently to
produce the causticpotassium hydroxide. It isdeliquescentand will absorb
water from the atmosphere, initiating this vigorous reaction.

Hydrochloric acid HCl

Hydrochloric acidis a colorless, highlypungentsolutionof

hydrogen chloride(HCl) in water. It is acorrosive,strongmineral acid
with many industrial uses. Hydrochloric acid is found naturally in
gastric acid. When it reacts with an organic base it forms a
hydrochloridesalt.

It has numerous smaller-scale applications, including household

cleaning, production ofgelatinand otherfood additives,descaling, and
leatherprocessing. About 20 milliontonnesof hydrochloric acid are
produced worldwide annually.

Physical properties
Concentration
kgHCl kgHCl
Baum
/kg
/m3

104.8
10%
6.6
0

Densit Molari
y
ty
kg/L

pH

mol/d
m3

Vapou
Specif
Boilin
Viscos
r
ic
g
ity
heat
point
pressu
kJ/
rekPa
mPas
C
(kgK)

Meltin
g
point
C

1.048

2.87

0.5

1.16

3.47

1.95

103

18

20%

219.6
0

13

1.098

6.02

0.8

1.37

2.99

1.40

108

59

30%

344.7
0

19

1.149

9.45

1.0

1.70

2.60

2.13

90

52

32%

370.8
8

20

1.159

10.17

1.0

1.80

2.55

3.73

84

43

34%

397.4
6

21

1.169

10.90

1.0

1.90

2.50

7.24

71

36

36%

424.4
4

22

1.179

11.64

1.1

1.99

2.46

14.5

61

30

23

1.189

12.39

1.1

2.10

2.43

28.3

48

26

38%

451.8

Uses
The acid catalyzed hydrolysis of esters. This is the reverse of the
esterification reaction but, in practice, it has to be done slightly differently.
The ester is heated under reflux with a dilute acid such as dilute
hydrochloric acid .
CH3COOCH2CH3 + H2O

CH3COOH + CH3CH2OH

The dilute acid used as the catalyst also provides the water for the
reaction. You need a large excess of water in order to increase the chances
of the forward reaction happening and the ester hydrolysing.

Hydration of ethane to ethanol

using H3PO3

Ethene is mixed with steam and passed over a catalyst consisting of solid silicon dioxide
coated with phosphoric(V) acid. The temperature used is 300C and the pressure is about
60 to 70 atmospheres.
Because the catalyst is in a different phase from the reactants, this is an example of
heterogeneous catalysis.

This is a reversible reaction and only about 5% of the ethene reacts on each pass over
the catalyst. When the reaction mixture is cooled, the ethanol and any excess steam
condense, and the gaseous ethene can be recycled through the process.
A conversion rate of about 95% is achieved by continual recycling in this way.

Aluminium oxide Al2O3

Aluminium oxideis achemical compoundofaluminiumandoxygen

with thechemical formulaAl2O3

Al2O3is anelectrical insulatorbut has a relatively high

thermal conductivity(30Wm1K1[3]) for a ceramic material. Aluminium
oxide is insoluble in water.

Aluminium oxide is anamphotericsubstance, meaning it can react with

bothacidsandbases, such ashydrofluoric acidandsodium hydroxide
Al2O3+ 6 HF 2 AlF3+ 3 H2O

Aluminium oxide as a catalyst

Aluminium oxide catalyses a variety of reactions that are useful

industrially. In its largest scale application, aluminium oxide is the
catalyst in theClaus processfor converting hydrogen sulfide waste
gases into elemental sulfur in refineries. It is also useful for dehydration
ofalcoholsto alkenes.
2H2S + O2 2S + 2H2O
CH3CH2OH

CH2CH2 + H2O

Biological Catalyst Enzyme

Enzymes accelerate, orcatalyze,chemical reactions. The molecules at the
beginning of the process upon which enzymes may act are called
substratesand the enzyme converts these into different molecules, called
products. Almost allmetabolic processesin thecellneed enzymes in order
to occur at rates fast enough to sustain life.The set of enzymes made in a
cell determines whichmetabolic pathwaysoccur in that cell. The study of
enzymes is calledenzymology.
Enzymes are known to catalyze more than 5,000 biochemical reaction
types
Like all catalysts, enzymes increase therate of a reactionby lowering its
activation energy

Enzyme Catalysis

By stabilizing the transition state:

By providing an alternative reaction pathway:

Creating an environment with a charge distribution complementary to that of the

transition state to lower its energy.

Temporarily reacting with the substrate, forming a covalent intermediate to provide

a lower energy transition state.

By destabilising the substrate ground state:

Distorting bound substrate(s) into their transition state form to reduce the energy
required to reach the transition state.

By orienting the substrates into a productive arrangement to reduce the reaction

entropychange.The contribution of this mechanism to catalysis is relatively small.

Coenzymes

Coenzymes are small organic molecules that can be loosely or tightly

bound to an enzyme. Coenzymes transport chemical groups from one
enzyme to another.

Some coenzymes, such asriboflavin,thiamineandfolic acid, are

vitamins, or compounds that cannot be synthesized by the body and
must be acquired from the diet.

About 1000 enzymes are known to use the coenzyme NADH.

Nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide(NAD) is acoenzymefound in

all livingcells.

Industrial use of Enzymes

Application

Enzymes used

Biofuel indust Cellulases

ry
Ligninases
Biological det
ergent

Proteases,amylases,
lipases
Mannanases

Brewing indus Amylase,glucanases,

try
proteases
Betaglucanases
Amyloglucosidaseand
pullulanases

Uses
Break down cellulose into sugars that
can be fermented to produce
cellulosic ethanol.
Pretreatment ofbiomassfor biofuel
production.
Remove protein, starch, and fat or oil
stains from laundry and dishware.
Remove food stains from the common
food additiveguar gum.
Split polysaccharides and proteins in the
malt.
Improve thewortand beer filtration
characteristics.
Make low-caloriebeerand adjust
fermentability.

Food processing

Amylases
Proteases
Trypsin

Molecular biology

Paper industry

Cellulases,pectinases
Nucleases,DNA ligase
andpolymerases

Personal care

Xylanases,
hemicellulasesand
lignin peroxidases
Proteases

Starch industry

Amylases

Produce sugars fromstarch,

such as in making
high-fructose corn syrup.
Lower the protein level of
flour, as inbiscuit-making.
Manufacturehypoallergenic
baby foods.
Clarifyfruit juices.
Userestriction digestionand
the
polymerase chain reactionto
createrecombinant DNA.
Removeligninfromkraft
pulp.
Remove proteins on
contact lensesto prevent
infections.
Convertstarchintoglucose

Inhibitors in Catalysis

Small amounts of some substances can reduce the the activity a

catalyst. If the reduction in activity is reversible, the substances are
calledinhibitors. If the reduction in activity is irreversible, the
substances are calledpoisons.

Selectivity increament of reaction For example, the conversion of

acetylene(C2H2) toethylene(C2H4) by catalytichydrogenationuses
palladium as the catalyst andlead acetate(Pb(CH3COO)2) as the inhibitor.
Without the partial deactivation of the catalyst by the inhibitor, the
ethylene produced would be further hydrogenated to undesirableethane.

As an example of the precautions taken to avoid catalyst poisoning, the expensive

platinum (Pt) and rhenium (Re) catalyst in the catalytic reforming process for producing
high-quality gasoline in petroleum refineries is subject to irreversible deactivation by
sulfur, nitrogen and arsenic compounds. Because of that, the petroleum naphtha
feedstocks to catalytic reformers are always processed for removal of such
compounds prior to being fed to the reformers.

Irreversible inhibitors
An irreversible inhibitor permanently inactivates the enzyme, usually by forming
a covalent bond to the protein. Penicillin and aspirin are common drugs that
act in this manner.

Thank you