Anti-convulsants or anti-epileptic drugs

Used to depress CNS in case of convulsive and

seizure disorders
Normal CNS function
Balanced level of excitatory & inhibitory
neurotransmisson
Excitatory neurotransmitters: Epinephrine,
norepinephrine, serotonin, aspartate, glutamate
Inhibitory neurotransmitters: GABA, glycine,
dopamine
Difference between convulsions & seizures
What is meant by epilepsy?

 A convulsion is a medical condition where body

muscles contract and relax rapidly and repeatedly,
resulting in an uncontrolled shaking of the body
A seizure is a sudden surge of electrical activity in
the brain
Epilepsy is a neurological disorder marked by
sudden recurrent episodes of sensory disturbance,
loss of consciousness, or convulsions, associated
with abnormal electrical activity in the brain

Various mechanisms implicated in

causing epilepsy
Enhanced availability of excitatory
neurotransmitters
Diminished accessibility of inhibitory
neurotransmitters
Altered function of neuronal membrane due to
impaired activity of Na+-K+-ATPase pump
Change in extra-cellular K+ and Ca+2
concentration

Types of Epilepsy on the basis of etiology

Primary Epilepsy
It is caused by inherited anatomical defects of
CNS
Requires life-long therapy with anti-convulsant
drugs

Secondary Epilepsy

Neoplasia (brain tumor)

Head injury
Hypoglycemia
Meningeal infection
Abrupt alcohol withdrawl

Anti-convulsants or anti-epileptic drugs

1.

Primary anti-epileptic drugs

Phenytoin

Selectively blocks Na+ channels

Interferes with the improper generation and
propagation of action potential
Adverse effects:
Gingival hyperplasia
Fetal hydantoin syndrome

 Carbamazepine
Has a similar mode of action
Possesses the property of auto-induction/selfinduction

Valproic acid
Broad-spectrum anti-convulsant drug
Blockage of Na+ channels
Also enhances GABA-mediated inhibitory
neurotransmission
Responsible for inhibition of microsomal enzymes

2. Adjunct anti-epileptic drugs

Meant for add-on therapy

Felbamate
Blocks Na+ channels and NMDA receptors

Gabapentin
It is an analogue of GABA
Has no action over GABA receptors
Responsible for the blockage of Ca+ channels

Lamotrigine
Blocks both Na+ as well as Ca+ channels
Can cause life-threatening rashes (dermatitis)

 Veterinary ethology
Classification of behavioral disorders
1.

Genetic-based behavioral problems

Physiological malfunctions attributed to

congenital or inherited defects

For example polydipsia and polyuria associated

with primary diabetes insipidus

2. Developmental and age-related

behavioral problems
Uncontrolled urination/defecation associated with
senility
Cognitive deficiency during infancy

3. Instinctive (specie specific) behavioral

problems
Coprophagia in rabbits

4. Fear and phobias

Thunderstorm, gun shots and loud noise

5. Disease-related behavioral problems

Dogs suffering from rabies

6. Adaptation-related behavioral
problems
Excessive vocalization
Panic reactions
Elimination behavior

7. Displaced/redirected behaviors
Appearance of normal reaction on wrong
stimulus/object

8. Depression
It is a mood disorder
Manifested by
Intense sadness
Frustration/desperation/disappointment,
Variation in sleep and appetite pattern
Suicidal tendencies

9. Mania
A completely opposite behavior to depression
Involves enthusiasm, rapid thought and speech
pattern, extreme self-confidence and impaired
judgment

ABLUTOPHOBIA
fear of washing or bathing

AILUROPHOBIA -- fear of cats

10. Anxiety
A state of chronic depression, uneasiness, tension
and fear from unknown sources
Leads to frequent tachycardia, diaphoresis and
trembling

11. Bipolar disorder

A state of mental disturbance that is characterized
by alternate episodes of both depression as well as
mania
Extreme mood swings
Can be treated with lithium

Neuroleptics or Antipsychotics
Used to treat patients suffering from psychotic
(mental) disorders

(a) Typical Neuroleptics

D2 receptor antagonists
Phenothiazine derivatives
Basically used as tranquilizers and anti-emetics
Chlorpromazine (Largectil)
Acepromazine (Sedastress)

 Butyrophenone derivatives
Also used as anti-emetics
Droperidol and Haloperidol

(b) Atypical Neuroleptics

D2 as well as 5HT2 receptor antagonists

Clozapine
Resperidone
Tardive dyskinesia

Antidepressant drugs
I. Selective Serotonin re-uptake
inhibitors (SSRIs)
Selectively block the re-uptake of Serotonin
Paroxetine (Paraxyl)
Sertraline
Indications
Depression
Obsessive compulsive disorder (OCD)

 Panic disorder
Pre-menstrual dysphoric disorder
Bulimia nervosa

Adverse effects

Sedation (sleep disorder)

Sexual dysfunction
Impotence
Delayed ejaculation
Anorgasmia

II. Serotonin-Norepinephrine
re-uptake inhibitors
Block the re-uptake of Serotonin as well as
Norepinephrine
Venlafaxine
Duloxetine

Adverse effects
Nausea
Dizziness
Sexual dysfunction

III. Atypical Antidepressants

Devoid of a well-defined mode of action

Bupropion
Also used for smoking cessation
Mirtazapine
Do not cause sexual dysfunction

IV. Tricyclic Antidepressants (TCAs)

Blockage of Serotonin and Norepinephrine
re-uptake
Also antagonize Muscarinic, Histaminic and
Adrenergic receptors

Imipramine
Clomipramine
Indications
Depression
Enuresis
Narcolepsy
Cataplexy
Urinary incontinence
Pruritis

Adverse effects

Antimuscarinic effects
Antiadrenergic effects
Antihistaminic effects
Sexual dysfunction

V.Mono-amine oxidase (MAO) inhibitors

Tranylcypromine
Selegiline
Complicated dietary restrictions
Selegiline is also used for treating cushing disease
or old dog dementia

Anxiolytic drugs
(a) Benzodiazepines
Diazepam
Lorazepam
Clonazepam

(b) Barbiturates
Phenobarbital
Pentobarbital
Amobarbital

(C) Zaleplon and Zolpidem

Sedatives
Reduce activity
Control excitement
Induce drowsiness

1. 2 receptor agonists

Xylazine
Detomidine
Medetomidine
Romifidine
Clonidine

Pharmacological actions

Sedatives
Analgesics
Skeletal muscle relaxants
Pre-anesthetics

2. Benzodiazepines

Enhance the binding of GABA with its receptors

Diazepam
Clonazepam
Alprazolam
Midazolam

Brand name

Generic name

Valium

Diazepam

Xanax

Alprazolam

Ativan

Lorazepam

Pharmacological actions

Sedatives
Skeletal muscle relaxants
Anxiolytics
Anticonvulsants
Pre-anesthetics & I/V anesthetics

Adverse effects
Muscle fasiculation
Ataxia
Withdrawal syndrome (anxiety, anorexia, tremors)
Antidote: Flumazenil

3. Barbiturates

GABA mimetic & GABA facilitatory action

Barbitone
Phenobarbitone
Pentobarbitone

Pharmacological actions

Sedatives
Anticonvulsants
Pre-anesthetics
I/V anesthetics

Tranquilizers
Also called ataractics
Used to induce calmness & tranquility
Do not cause sedation or sleepiness

1. Phenothiazine derivatives

Block D2 receptors in the CNS

Promazine
Acepromazine
Chlorpromazine

Pharmacological actions

Tranquilizers
Anti-emetics
Pre-anesthetics
Behavior modifying agents

Adverse effects

Hypotension
Bradycardia
Protrusion of nictating membrane
Prolapse of penis (in horses)

2. Butyrophenone derivatives
Block D2 receptors in the CNS
Droperidol
Haloperidol

Pharmacological actions

Anti-traumatic shock agents

Anti-emetics
Tranquilizers
Chemical restraining agents

Adverse effect
Galactorrhoea (discharge of milk-like substance from the
mammary glands regardless of nursing after pregnancy)