Biomechanics

Unit I
Dr. Rashmi Uddanwadiker

Bio-structures

2 2

 Socrates, born 2400 years ago, taught that to

understand the world around us study our own
nature.
As scientists who seek knowledge of the
mechanics within their own bodies, and those of
other living creatures, lets share something of
Socrates' inward inquiry.
But, we do not share the public abuse that he
suffered, and which led him, as an old man of 70,
to be tried, convicted, and executed for "impiety
and corrupting the youth of Athens."
3

What is Biomechanics ?
The study of deformations
of Bio-structures and its
motions when subjected to
static and dynamic loads.
Biomechanics estimates the
response of Bio-structure
to the applied forces.
4 4

Introduction
Newly developed discipline of science.
Definition by Hay(1973)- Biomechanics is the
science that examines forces acting upon and
within a biological structure and effects produced
by such forces.
External forces upon a system are quantified
using sophisticated measuring devices.
Internal forces which result from muscle activity
are assessed using implant measuring devices.
5

 Possible results of these forces are:

Movement of segments of interest
Deformation of biological material
Biological changes in the tissues on which
they act.

 Hatze stated in (1971) Biomechanics is a

science which studies structures and functions
of biological system using the knowledge and
methods of mechanics.
Biomechanical research addresses different
areas like studies on
1. the functioning of muscles, tendons, ligaments,
cartilage and bone.
2. load and overload of specified structures of
living systems.
3. factors influencing performance.
7

Historical Highlights

Antiquity
650B.C.-200 B.C.
Middle Ages
200B.C.-1450A.D
Italian Renaissance 1450 A.D-1600 A.D
Scientific Revolution 1600 A.D-1730 A.D.
Enlightenment
1730 A.D-1800 A.D
The Gait Century
1800 A.D- 1900 A.D
The 20th century
1900 A.D..
8

The Scientific Legacy of

Antiquity
Greek Sculpture illustrated the dynamics of
movement and knowledge of surface anatomy.
Pythagorus (582 BC) experimented with shapes and
numbers which resulted in famous theorem .
He regarded the universe and human body as
musical instrument whose string required balance
and tension to produce harmony.
Plato(427-347 BC) believed that mathematics, a
system of pure ideas, was the best tool for the pursuit
of knowledge.
9

 Indeed, Aristotle (384-322 BC) might be

considered the first biomechanician.
He wrote the first book called "De Motu
Animalium" - On the Movement of
Animals.
Aristotles universe consisted of four
observable elements: fire, air, water and
earth.
Aristotle had a remarkable talent for
observation and was fascinated by
anatomy and structure of living things.
10

 Herophilos (300 BC) initiated the foundation of

modern anatomy by creating a sytematic approach
to dissection, identifying numerous organs.
He revived the belief that brain is the seat of
intelligence and not heart as suggested by Aristotle.
Archimedes (287-212 BC) described the principle of
water displacement (while bathing).
Was killed at spot by roman soldier for he was
absorbed in geometrical figures and shouted keep
off
Galen (129-201 AD) was the first sports physician
and team doctor in history.
He performed surgeries and dissections and
published some 500 medical treatises.
11

Relevance to Biomechanics
The relevance of antiquity to
biomechanics lies in three major aspect;
Knowledge and Myth were separated
Mechanical and Mathematical Paradigms
were developed
First biomechanical analysis of human
body was performed.
12

Middle ages
Arab scholars saved the scientific
investigations of antiquity from disappearing
By translating the works from Greek to Arabic.
St. Augustine discouraged the scientific enquiry
He explained that knowledge of God is the only
type of knowledge.
Medicine existed but human locomotion was
discouraged.
13

Relevance to Bio-Mechanics
The relevance of the middle ages to the
development is minimal.
The development was discouraged and
put to sleep for more than 1200 years.

14

The Italian Renaissance

Leonardo the Vinci (1452-1519) was a
military and civil Engineer.
He described parallelogram of forces, Ball
and socket joints at shoulders and hip
joint.
He made parachutes, helicopters etc.

15

Shoulder joint in Da Vincis study

16

 Picture of eye and

brain which
combines Greek
and Arab views

17

 Vesalius (1514-1564) received his formal

training in medicine.
Performed human dissections to re-evaluate
the anatomy of muscles.
He believed the muscles to be composed of
ligaments and tendons which are divided into
great number of fibres.
He challenged Galens anatomy.
18

Human skeleton from Vesaliuss book

19

Relevance to Biomechanics
Scientific work was revived.
The foundation for modern anatomy and
physiology were laid.
Movement and muscle action were
studied.

20

Scientific revolution
Galileo Galilei(1564-1642), Johannes Kepler (1571-1630), Issac
newton (1642-1727) tried to understand the nature by the way
of scientific analysis.
Galileo studied the biomechanics of human jump, gait analysis
of horses and insects, effect of changing the structures of
biological materials.
Santorio(1561-1636) colleague of Galileo, was the first to apply
mechanics to medicine.
For 30 years, he spent much of his time suspended from a
steelyard weighing himself and his solid and liquid inputs and
outputs.
He laid the foundation for metabolism.
21

Santorio in
his balance

22

 William Harvey (1578-1657) studied the

motion of heart.
He discovered the circulation of blood.
He applied theory of mechanics to heart and
described its function as a pump.
He became first cardiac biomechanist.
And later died of stroke.
Rene Descartes (1596-1650) serving as a
soldier in Holland, invented cartesian
coordinate system.
By observing the habits of a fly zooming in the
room while lying in the bed.
23

 Giovanni Borellis (1608-1679) investigations of

mechanics of human body led him to be known as
father of Biomechanics.
He integrated physics and physiology. He formulated
hypothesis which included:
The trajectory of jump is parabolic and a jump during
running is longer and higher.
Muscle contraction does not consist of simple tension
of the fibres similar to that exerted on a rope raising a
weight.
He prepared Borellis table, the movement of Animals:
illustrating the models of muscular construction.
24

Relevance to Biomechanics
Experiment and Theory were introduced
as complimentary elements in scientific
investigations.
The Newtonian Mechanics were
established providing a complete theory
for mechanical analysis.

25

The Enlightment
Newtons laws were analysed.
Discarded by few and appreciated by few.
40 books on Newton in English,17 in french and 3 in
German.
Euler is considered as ablest, most brilliant and
productive scientist and mathematician of 18 th century.
John Hunter (1728-1793) analysed that muscles are
fitted for self motion and are the only body part so
fitted.
Robert Whytt(1714-1793) did the first demonstration of
reflex action by spinal cord.
26

Relevance to Biomechanics
The concept of force was clearly understood.
The concept of conservation of momentum
and energy started to develop.
Mathematical consolidation of different
mechanical laws took place.
Muscle contraction and action became an
event influenced by mechanical, biochemical
and electrical forces.
27

Gait century
Jean Jacques Rousseaus (1712-1778) novel Emile
revived the ancient idea of development of body and
intellect by physical activity.
It was proposed that exercise during childhood could
prevent musculo-skeleton deformities in adulthood.
Volkmann described the effect of pressure on bone
growth.
In 1867 Van Meyer described the relation between the
architecture of bone and its function.
Development of sports and leisure during late 18 th century
created a renewed scientific interest in human locomotion.
28

 Analysis of human Gait occupied physiotherapist,

engineers, mathematicians and adventurers.
Weber brothers published 150 hypotheses about
human Gait which were derived from observation
and theoretical considerations.
Etienne Marey (1838-1904) developed modern
cinecamera.
Marey suggested frame by frame analysis of
movements arguing that screen portrayed images
which he could not see with his own eyes.
He illustrated the movements he analyzed from film
recordings with scientific drawings.
29

30

 Braune and Fischers publication contained

mathematical analysis of of human gait.
including 2 on free walking and 1 walking with
army knapsack, 3 full cartridge pouches and
88 rifles on shoulder arm position.
Reymond laid the foundation of
electromyography.
Engineering principles were introduced to
understand the bone physiology.
31

Relevance to Biomechanics
Measuring methods were developed to
quantify kinematics and kinetics of
movement and applied to human Gait
analysis.
Measuring methods were developed to
quantify electrical current during muscular
activity.
Engineering principles were applied to
biological and biomechanical analysis.
32

The 20 century
th

The 20th century was characterized by several

factors which affected the development of
Biomechanics:
Mechanical and technological development
resulting from two world wars.
Increased popularity, social and financial
recognition of sports in society.
Financial support for medical and healthcare
research.
33

 In 1920 Jules Amar published his book The Human

Motor.
This was an analysis of physical and physiological
components of work, taking into consideration the
workers environment and individual movements.
Nicolas Bernsteins (1896-1966) analysis of
coordination and regulation of movement provided the
basis for theories of motor control.
Einstein developed theory of relativity(1905).
A.V.Hill a mathematician switched off to physiology
and received a Nobel Prize.
He developed theories for mechanical and structural
function of human muscle.
34

 Rudolph Laban developed a method of

representing a series of complex human
movements which are still used for dance
choreography.
Elftman estimated internal forces in muscles and
joints.
Huxley studied physics and worked on Radar in
World war II.
He gained recognition for his work with the
model of muscle contraction and development of
X ray diffraction and electron microscopy.
35

 In 1967 first international seminar on

biomechanics was held with the
discussions on following topics;
Techniques of motion studies,
Principles of coordinations of human
motion,
Applied biomechanics in work and sports,
Clinical aspect.

36

 Research dealing with movement, exercise and

sport, of which biomechanics is a substantial
part, now has a prestigious international prize.
The IOC- Olympic prize.
It is awarded every two years in connection with
Olympic Games.
The first Prize was awarded in 1996 in Atlanta.
This award to a biomechanist is an indication of
increasing importance of this science and
biomechanical research performed world wide.
37

Relevance to biomechanics
Biomechanics developed as a discipline at
universities.
Biomechanical research results were
increasingly used in practical, medical and
industrial applications.
Biomechanics became a player in multidisciplinary attempt to understand human
and animal movements.
38

39

Biomechanics
The study of mechanics in the human body
The study of the effects of internal and external
forces on the human body in movement and rest
Mechanical principles applied to the study of
biological functions;
The application of mechanical laws to living
structures;
the study and knowledge of biological function
from an application of mechanical principles
40

Segment Names
Skeleton
Head
Neck
Trunk

Upper Extremity Lower Extremity

-Arm
-Thigh
-Forearm
-Leg or Shank
-Hand
-Foot
-Fingers
-Toes

Anatomical terminologies
Axis : It is the line about which movement takes
place.
An imaginary straight line around which an
object rotates is called axis.
Plane : It is the surface which lies at right angles
to axis and in which the movement take place.
These terms are used to facilitate the description
of movement or direction.
Types of axes : They are 3 types of axes.
42

a. Sagittal axis: It lies parallel to sagittal suture of

skull, i.e. in a anterior-posterior direction. Movement
at this axes occur in a frontal plane.
b. Transverse axes: It lies parallel to transverse
suture of skull. It is horizontal and at right angles to
sagittal axes. Movement about frontal axes occurs
in a sagittal plane.
c. Vertical axes: It lies parallel to line of gravity.
Movement about this axis is in a horizontal plane.

Sagittal

Frontal

Vertical
43

44

45

46

Planes
1. Movement in horizontal plane
(transverse plane):
Plane divides the body into upper and lower
halves.
Movements in transverse plane
occur parallel to ground.

47

2. Movement in frontal plane

(coronal plane):
the frontal plane divides the body
into front and back halves.
Movements in the frontal plane
occur side to side movements
such as bringing the head to each
of the shoulders.

48

3. Movement in vertical plane

(sagittal plane):
An anteroposterior Vertical plane
passing through the body from front
to back, dividing it in half.
It is the plane that divides the body or
body segment into the right and left
parts.
Movements in this plane include
forward and backward motions
such as nodding of the head.
49

Location Terminology

Medial
Superior
Proximal
Anterior

Lateral
Inferior
Distal
Posterior

51

Movements Terminologies
1. Flexion: usually forward bending
(occasionally backward. eg: knee)
2. Extension: straightening or bending
backward
3. Abduction: movement away from midline
of the body
4. Adduction: movement towards the midline
of the body.
5. Circumduction: combination of above four
52

53

54

55

 Rotation: around the long axis of the bone

Pronation: turning the palm of the hand
down
Supination: turning the palm of the hand
up.
Inversion: turning the sole of the foot
inwards
Eversion: turning the sole of the foot
outwards
56

57

58

Plantar flexion
A toe-down motion of the foot at the ankle.
It is measured in degrees from the 0
position of the foot at rest on the ground with
the body in a standing position.
Dorsiflexion
Turning upward of the foot or toes or of the
hand or fingers
59

60

 LEVER: It is a rigid bar that rotate around

on axis
Forces applied to levers will produce
either equilibrium or movement such as
rotation or translation.
Fulcrum (F), Effort (E), Weight (W)
There are 3 orders or classes of levers.
61

Ist Order Lever

Here fulcrum is in between the effort and
weight;
the efforts and the weight arms may be equal,
or may exceed the other in length.
Ex: Nodding movements of head.
Skull represents lever, atlanto-occipital joints
represents fulcrum, the weight is situated
anteriorly in the face and the effort is supplied by
contraction of posterior neck muscles.
62

63

2nd Order Lever

The weight is in between fulcrum and effort, and
the efforts arm must therefore always exceed the
weights arm.
It helps in taking mechanical advantage, thus
known as lever of power.
Ex: Rising of heels to stand on toes
Tarsal and metatarsal bones are stabilized to form
lever.
Fulcrum is metatarsophalangeal joints
weight of the body is transmitted to ankle joint by
talus.
Effort is applied by combination of calf muscles.
64

65

3rd Order Lever

Effort is in between fulcrum and weight, and
weight arm must therefore exceed the effort arm.
It serves as mechanical disadvantage.
Ex: When lever is forearm,
fulcrum is Shoulder joint
effort is supplied by contraction of brachialis
muscle and
weight is some object held in hand.
66

67

68

69

 Center of Gravity is the point at which the entire

mass or weight of the body may be considered
to be concentrated.
Center of Mass is the point in a body or system
of bodies at which, for certain purposes, the
entire mass may be assumed to be
concentrated.
Simply, CoM (COG) is the point around which
the bodys mass is equally distributed in all
directions.
70

71

Location of COG in Humans

Since the human body is not rigid, the
location of the COG is dependent on the
location of the limbs.
Intersection of three planes locates COG.

72

 People adjust their stance to maintain

balance..
73

Example
Calculate the force the biceps muscle
must exert to hold the forearm and its load
and compare this force with the weight of
the forearm plus its load.

74

75

Taking moments about elbow

FB=470 N

Ratio of
FB/Weight of book and
hand=470/63.7=7.38
This means that the biceps muscle is
exerting a force 7.38 times the weight
supported.
76

Interpretation
In the above example of the biceps muscle, the
angle between the forearm and upper arm is 90.
If this angle changes, the force exerted by the
biceps muscle also changes.
In addition, the length of the biceps muscle
changes.
The force the biceps muscle can exert depends
upon its length; it is smaller when it is shorter
than when it is stretched.
77

 Consider the person lifting a heavy box with

his back.
Calculate the magnitude of the force in the
back muscles that is needed to support the
upper body plus the box and compare this
with his weight.
The mass of the upper body is 55.0 kg and
the mass of the box is 30.0 kg.
Also Calculate the magnitude and direction
of the force exerted by the vertebrae on the
spine at the indicated pivot point.
78

79

Taking moments about pivot point

FB=4.2 kN
Resolving the forces
FVy=2.87, FVx=3.67 angle= 38

FV= 4.66kN
Ratio of FV /(W ub +W box)= 4.66/0.8335=
5.59
This force is about 5.6 times greater than it
would be if the person were standing erect
80

 A person working at a drafting board may

hold her head as shown in Figure, requiring
muscle action to support the head.
Calculate the direction and magnitude of the
force supplied by the upper vertebrae FV to
hold the head stationary, assuming that this
force acts along a line through the center of
mass as do the weight and muscle force.

81

 F V = 97 N,
= 59

82

 Even when the head is held erect, as in Figure,

its center of mass is not directly over the principal
point of support (the atlanto-occipital joint).
The muscles at the back of the neck should
therefore exert a force to keep the head erect.
That is why your head falls forward when you fall
asleep in the class.
(a) Calculate the force exerted by these muscles
using the information in the figure. (b) What is the
force exerted by the pivot on the head?

83

84

Example
A 75-kg man stands on his toes by exerting
an upward force through the Achilles
tendon, as in Figure.
(a) What is the force in the Achilles tendon
if he stands on one foot?
(b) Calculate the force at the pivot of the
simplified lever system shownthat force
is representative of forces in the ankle joint.
85

86

 A father lifts his child as shown in Figure.

What force should the upper leg muscle
exert to lift the child at a constant speed?

87

Examples of COM

88

89

 How does your stability change with the

use of crutches? How does the BoS
change?
Using concepts from this lecture, which
hand would you recommend that a person
put a cane in, given that his right knee is
injured and he cannot fully put his weight
on that limb.
90

Properties
which describe the material
Material properties:
which describes its general behavior ex: E,
Physical properties:
properties related to physics ex: mass, colour
Structural properties:
Properties of a sample which includes size and shape. Ex:
strength to weight ratio, flexibility
Chemical properties:
Properties describing the chemistry of a material Ex:
composition, M.P.
92

Isotropy:
A term indicating equal physical and material properties
in all direction
Ex. Metals
Orthrotopy:
A property due to which material exhibits different
properties in three mutually perpendicular directions.
Ex. Wood, composite fibres, cortical bone
Anisotropy:
A variation in material property with respect to direction
Ex. Fibreglass laminate, silicon, cancellous bone

93

Type of behavior
Linear
A material in which some specified influence (such as
stress, electric -field, or magnetic field) produces a
response (such as strain, electric polarization, or
magnetization) which is proportional to the influence.
Non linear
Output is not proportional to input
Elasticity
the ability to temporarily change shape, but return to
the original shape when the force is removed.
Plasticity
the ability to permanently change shape in response
to the force, but remain in one piece.
Deformation in the plastic range is non-linear.
94

Viscosity
Resistance of a fluid to a change in shape,
or movement of neighbouring portions
relative to one another.
Viscosity denotes opposition to flow.
Visco-elasticity
Some materials exhibit both elasticity and
viscosity when undergoing plastic
deformation;
Ex: amorphous polymers, ligaments,
tendons
95

Thank you
97